











.64S 









Qass 
Book 



NOTES 



TO 



GREEK GRAMMAR 



BY 

A. 0. BER5ELL, Fh. d., 

Professor of the Greek Language and Literature 

IN 

AUGUSTANA COLLEGE, EOCK ISLAND, ILL. 



"NON MULT A SED MULTUM:' 



ROCK ISLAND, ILL. 

LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS. 



■A 



Copyright 1899 

BY 

A. O. BERSELL. 

Exchange 
Augustana College Uby. 
Sept. 28 1^34 



PREFACE. 



The foUowiDg Notes are the result of a rather dis- 
couraging experience gathered during a period of 
twenty years of work in the class room. Such as they 
are they have simply forced themselves upon the 
author. It has always been with a keen sense of com- 
passion that he has been compelled, each year, to put 
into the hands of the beginner in his subject a large 
volume with a bewildering wealth of information, of 
rules and counter-rules, more or less indefinite, and 
of lengthy discussions— all good and necessary in- 
formation for the advanced student. But the very 
sight of this endless string of rules has invariably 
proved to be discouraging to the beginner. The only 
means of counteracting this influence has been found 
to be a selection of the most essential principles and 
a condensation of the same into as few definite rules 
as possible. And during the course of his work the 
author has found — paradoxical as the statement may 
seem— that the less of grammatical details he has 
given his students the more Greek they have been 
enabled to acquire. Each successive year has taught 
him a new lesson in this respect, and he has yielded to 
the necessity of constant condensation, the result of 
which is hereby presented. 

Although not covering the entire field of the gram- 
mar, but only such parts as have proved particularly 



4 



difficult or seemed rather minutely treated in our- 
existing Greek grammars,— the author believes these 
Notes to be. quite sufficient for the first two or three 
years' Avork in the subject, especialh^ with the excellent 
Greek readers now generalh^ used, with their full 
tables and elementary rules. Yet, the Notes are not 
intended to supplant the regular grammar. On the 
contrary, the latter can, and ought to be used with 
advantage as a book of reference. To this end refer- 
ence is made at each paragraph to the corresponding 
sections in Goodwin's (G.) and Hadley's (H.) Greek 
Grammars. 

The Notes appear without any other claim than 
that of being an attempt to simplify and facilitate a 
studj^ which, with our present grammars, has proved 
to be an unnecessarily arduous task for the beginner. 
The author has intended them, in the first place, for 
his own students, to save them the drudgery of copy- 
ing from dictation. If- others, however, shall find 
them worthy of being tried, and if thej shall prove 
to be of some assistance in paving the Avay for the 
beoinner at other schools and in making his first 
steps less of a drudgerj^ and thereby creating a greater 
interest in the study of the marvellous Greek language 
and literature, the writer will feel amply rewarded for 
his unpretentious attempt. 

Augustana College, Eock Island, 111., March, 1899. 

A.O.B, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAET I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

FIRST DIVISION. 

Phonology. 

Page. 

§ 1. Classification of Consonant Sounds 7 

§ 2. Quantity of Syllables 8 

§ 3. Accent 8 

§ 4. Accent of Contracted Syllables 9 

§ 5. Proclitics 10 

§ 6. Enclitics...: 10 

§ 7. Phonetic Laws 12 

SECOND DIVISION. 

Inflection. 

§ 8. Introductory Notes on the Declensions 19 

§ 9. First Declension 22 

§ 10. Second Declension 28 

§11. Third Declension 24 

§ 12. Adjectives of the First and Third Declensions 28 

§ 13. Comparison of Adjectives 29 

§ 14. Numerals 31 

§ 15. Pronouns 31 

§ 16. Introductory Notes on the Verbs , 32 

§ 17. Formation of Tense Stems 35 

§ 18. Second Conjugation 41 

PART II. 

SYNTAX. 

§ 19. Voices 41 

§ 20. Tenses of the Indicative 15 

§ 21. Tenses of the other Modes 47 

§22. The Particle^' AN 48 



6 

§ 23. Modes in Independent Sentences 49 

§ 24. Sequence of Modes 51 

§ 25. Modes in Dependent Object Clauses 53 

§26. Indirect Questions Si 

§ 27. Hypothetical Sentences 55 

§ 28. Concessiye Clauses 57 

§ 29. Final Clauses 57 

§ 30. Relative Clauses..- 58 

§ 31. Temporal Clauses 59 

§ 32. Assimilation of Modes 60 

§33. Causal Clauses 61 

§ 34. Consecutive Clauses 61 

§35. Comparative Clauses 62 

§36. The Infinitive 63 

§ 37. Accusative (Nominative) with the Infinitive.... 64 

§ 38. The Participle 65 

§ 39. The Negatives 67 



PART !• 

ETYMOLOGY. 



FIRST DIVISION. 

PHONOLOGY. 

§ 1:. Classification of Consonant Sounds. 

(G. §§ 16-33; H. §§ 22-27.) 

The consonant sounds are divided into : 

1. Liquids, A, /x, and y before a K-sound. 

2. Sibilants, o-^ and the obsolete f (Van, also called 
Digamma), andj (Jod). 

3. Mutes, which are classified as follows: 

Classes : 



'c^ 'c^ .2 

M 

r Smooth TT K T 

I < Middle ^ y S 

o ( Rough X ^ 

Rem. The double consonants ^, ^. i/^ represent the 

S-sound with a preceding T, K, and P-sonnd 

respectively. 



* The references are made to Hadlej's Greek Grammar (H.), 
edit. 1885, and to Goodwin's Greek Grammar (G.), edib. 1893. 



8 



§ 2. Quantity of Syllables. 

(Ct. §§ 98-103; H. §§ 92-94.) 

1. A syllable is long by nature, if it has a long 
voAYel sound. 

2. A ^jWaXAe \^ long by position, if it has a short 
vowel sound followed more than one con- 
sonant sound. 

Exc. A sjdlable containing a short vowel sound 
followed by a mute and a liquid may in 
prose beeither long or short (^^common)", 
except 

a. in compounds and when the consonants 
belong to different words, e. g. cKXeyw 
(- - U i/ewv (- - -); 

b. when a middle 8) is followed by 
\, /X, or p; e. g. (SipXo^ (-^). 

3. A syllable is short, if it has a short vowel sound 
followed hj not wore than one consonant sound. 

§ 3. Accent. 

(G. §§ 106-115; H. §§ 95—110.) 

1. The ultima, when accented, takes the acute. 
Exc. It takes the circumflex: 

a. In contraction, if the first of the con- 
tracted vowels has had the accent 
[vov^i for v6-os) ; 

b. In all genitive and dative endings long- 
by nature (rt/xTys), except in the xlttic 
second declension ; 

c. In adverbs in -ws; 

d. In the vocative endings -oT and -ev of 
the third declension ; 



9 



e. In some monosyllables ; e. g. ypav<s, vav<s, 

^oi)?; ovsp Trats, Tras, tt^/o, etc. 

2. The penult, when accented, takes the acute. 
Exc. It takes the circumflex when it is itself long 

by nature and the ultima is not long by 
nature (TratSe?). 

3. The antepenult, when accented, takes the ^cute, 
Eem. 1. If the ultima is long, the accent can not befar- 

ther from it than on the penult. Thus if the 
accent was originally on the antepenult, and 
the ultima during inflection becomes long, the 
accent (acute) is moved from the antepenult 
to the penult. E. g. av6po)7ros, but avOpoiirov. 
Eem. 2. The diphthongs -at and -06 when terminat- 
ing a word are regarded short, as far as the 
determining of the accent is concerned, ex- 
cept in the optative, and in the adverb oLkoi, 
at home. E.g. OaXaTrai, av9p(x)7roL ; but the 
optative /SovXevoc. 

§ 4. Accent of Contracted Syllables. 

(G. §§ 117, 118; H. §§ 101, 105.) 

A contracted syllable takes : 

1. the circumflex, if the first of the contracted 
vowels has had the accent. E. g.oo-row for 6(TTiov\ 

TTOioi for TTOteco ; SrjXovjJiev for SrjXoofJiev, 

2. the original accent, if the latter of the contract- 
ed vowels has had the accent. E. g. rjv for idv; 

<^tXov/xei/09 for <^tXeo/x€i/05, /xwi/ for firj ovv, 

3. no accent, if neither of the contracted vowels 
has had the accent. E. g, Ittolow for iiroUov; rifxa 

for Tt/xae. 

Kem. For exceptions see under the different declen- 
sions. 



10 

§ 5. Proclitics. 

(G. §§ 136-139; H. §§ 111, 112.) 

1. Proclitics are monosyllabic words which attach 
themselves so closely to a following word that 
they are pronounced as a part of it and there- 
fore take no accent. They are : 

a. four forms of the article, 6, rj, ol, at; 

b. four prepositions, iv, ets (cs), iK (e^), ws; 

c. two conjunctions, el, a5s; 

d. one adverb, ov. 

2. Proclitics are accented, 

a. when followed by an enclitic ; e. g. et rts ; 

b. ov when at the end of a sentence; e. g. <t>rjs rj 
ov ; 

c. ct's (and in poetry the prepositions) w^hen 
following the w^ord to which they belong ; e. 
g. 6c6s cJs. 

§ 6. Enclitics. 

(G. §§ 140-146 ; H. §§ 113-119.) 

1. Enclitics are words which attach themselves so 
closely to a preceding word that they are pro- 
nounced as a part of it and therefore take no 
accent. They are : 

a. the present indicative of elfxc (I am) and ct>rjfXL 
(I say), except the second pers. sing, el and 

b. of the personal pronouns the forms f^ov, /xot, 

fie — (TOVy aoL, ere — ov, ot, €, cc^tVt ; 

c. all forms of the indefinite pronoun rts, rt ; 

d. the indefinite adverbs ttw, ttws, ttt^, W, ttov (or 

iroOC), TToOev^ TTore; 



11 



0. the particles yi, re, rot", Trip, the aocnsative 
suffix -^e, and the poetic vvv {vv)^ Oyv^ kIv (kc), 

pa. 

2. The accent oi the enclitics is determined by the 
following rules : 

a. After an accented ultima all lose their ac- 
cent. K. g. 4*o)vii] TL<^^ KaAog icTTiV. 

1). After a jjaroxytone (a word having the acnte 
on the penult) monosyllabic enclitics lose 
their accent, but disyllabic enclitics retain 

it. K g. Xdyo? Tt?, but Xoyoi rtFe?. 

c. After a properispomenon (a word having 
the circumflex on the penult) and a pro- 
pa7 0xjio72e (having the acute on the ante- 
penult) the accent of the enclitic is taken hj 
the preceding ultima. E. g. o-w/xa piov, avOpoy- 
iTOLTLve<;. Note that the acute of the ultima 
followed by an enclitic is never changed to 
the grave. 

d. Of several enclitics in succession only the 
last appears without accent (each one 
throwing its accent on the preceding one). 

E. g. Ti^ Tiva <prj(JL fxoi TrapelvoLi. 

c. Further the enclitics are accented, 
a. when they begin the clause ; 
^. when they are emphasized (so the pers. 

pronouns governed by a preposition); 
y. when they follow upon elision. 



§ 7. Phonetic Laws. 

(G. §§ 29-41 ; 68-95 ; H. §§ 34-41 ; 46-74.) 
A. Vowels. 
I. Lengthening . 

1. Formative lengthening (in inflection and word- 
formation) implies the following vowel changes : 

aio r] (but to tt after t, p). Ex. yXwcro-a, yXuycrarj^; 

Tretpao), Treipaao), 

e ^' 7) ^' TTOteo), TTOirjcrui. 

o oy 

t i Tio), ncro). 

{; ^' i; " cf)V(i)j (fivcro). 

2. Vicarious lengthening (to compensate for con- 
sonants dropped) causes changes as follows : 



a 


to d 


Ex. 


Tra? for TTOLVTS. 


e 


" et 


u 




o 


' ^ ov , 


u 


Xeovcn'^ XeovTG 


t 


" I 


i i 


pt? plvs. 


V 


V 


i c 





II. Contraction. 

1. Similar sounds are contracted into one long (aa 

to a; ee tO et ; erj to rj ; oo to ov), and diphthongs 

absorb a preceding short vowel which is kindred 
to the first vowel of the diphthong: 

tt-]-a = a e^et = et o -\- at = ol 

a -\- at — at e -\- y] = rj o -{- ov oi> 

o -f- 4^ — 

2. If the sounds are different : 

a. The 0-sound prevails over the A-sound and 
the E-sound as follows : 



13 




[rt/xw/xei/ for rt/xao/xei/ 



vrjoSvvos 
alSoa 

TLfJLaOL 

fxtaOoe 

/JLT] ovv 
TLfJidoV. 

Rem. 1. Note that an a + any 0-sound (o, ot, ov) 
invariably make w. 

Rem. 2. In contract adjectives in -oo? tlie A-sound 
and E-sound prevail over the 0-sound,so tliat 
o -j- a = a; o -|- at == at ; o -\- rj = rj. 

Rem. 3. o -\- rj = o); but o -\- rj — rj in contract ad- 
jectives in -60s {oLTrXj] for aTrXorj), and o -\- y 
= ot in verbs in -ow (8oi;AoT9 for SovXorjs). 

b. Of an A-sound and an E-80und the one that 
precedes prevails : 

a -f- € ) _ r OLKOJV for deKCDV 
Vz=: a: ^ 



a + rj f 



\ Tt/xare 



a -f- €t ^ Tt/xa 
\Xvrf 



c -|- a = : 



Tiiidrj 
Xveai 

Xvrj'JLL. 



Xlem. 1. € -f- at — 7/ or €6 in the second person singular 
indicative of the present and future passive 



14 



and middle; onhj a in fSovXet (from /SovXofxaL), 
oLec (from oLOfxai), oiJ/eL (from oi/^o/xat). and 
generally et in the contracted future ; oxJj/ at 
in the dual and plural of the first declension; 
e. g. Xv€i or XvYj for Xveat ; ^avet for (f^avUi 
(from (jyavi-eac) ; crvKOLV for avK^atv. 
Rem. 2. e — a =r d: 

a. cd trays in the dual and plural of the first 
declension: in the singular, onhj after 
€, p: e. g. orvKa for crvKea; apyvpa for 
apyvpea; 

b. in the neuter plural of the second declen- 
sion ; e. g. ocrra for oo-rea. 

Rem. 3. For other vowel changes see G. §§ 42 — 67, 
and H. §§ 28—33: 42—45. 

B. Consonants. 
I. Mutes. 

1. A labial and a palatal followed by a lingual 
are changed to the same order as the lingual. 
Thus: 

tt] tt] tt] 

13]+ r = ttt; /3}+S = /3S; /5 J - 0 = cj^O; 

^} <#>J <^J 

k] k] 

yy.+.T = KT; y}+8 = yS: y}+ 0 = x^- 

xJ xJ x) 

2. A labial and a palatal with the S-sound are rep- 
resented by ij/ and f respectively. Thus : 

tt] k] 

<#>J x) 
•J. A labial followed b^^ /x is changed to (assimi- 
lated); a palatal followed hj /x is represented 
bv y : 

H xJ 



15 

Exc. In the preposition Ik, k is not changed in 
the eases in 1, 2, 3. 

4. A lingual followed by an other lingual or by /x 
is changed to o- : 

rl r] r] r] 

6} e) 0} 6) 

5. A lingual preceded by a vowel and followed by 
o- or K is dropped without leaving any lengthen- 
ing; V and a lingual followed by o- or k are 
dropped, leaving vicarious lengthening to a 
preceding short vowel (see § 7, A, I, 2). 

Rem. ev8 -\- ix — eio-fx (€(77reto-/xai for €0-7r€v8/xa6, from 
CTTreVSo).) 

6. A smooth mute followed by rough breathing is 
changed to the corresponding rough (d<^' ov for 

airo ov ; rifxipaL for Sefca T^^epat ; vv^S" oXrjvlOY vvKTa 
oXrjv) . 

7. If two syllables in succession should begin with 
a rough mute, then : 

a. The Urst is changed to the corresponding 
smooth : 

a. in reduplication (ri-OvKa, 7rc-4>L\r}Ka); 

/5. in the first passive system of TLOrjfXL and 

dv(jL> [ireOrjVj rvOrjcroixai)'^ 

b. The latter is changed to the corresponding 
smooth in the first aorist imperative passive 
ending -Ol {XvOrjTi for XvOrj-Ot). 

Rem. A transfer of aspiration takes place in a 
few stems beginning with r (tlie root is 
believed originally to have had 6) and 
ending in c/) or x- If during inflection the 
aspiration of the final labial or palatal of 



16 

the stem is lost, it is assumed by the initial 
lingual. Thus: 
Stem rax, positive ra^vs, eomparatiye Odo-o-wv] 
" rpix, nominative ^pt'f, genitive '^P^X^^j 
Tpe^, present Tpecjxx), future 6piif/(x)- 
" rpex, " '^P^X^, " 6pe^oixai\ 

" Ta<^^ " OdiTTijjj OdiJ/o), II 

aor. pass, irdcjirjv. 

8. When a rough is to be doubled, the first is repre- 
sented by the corresponding smooth (Ba/<xos for 
Baxxo?). 

9. No other consonant than v, p, and an S-sound 
(a, ij/) can end a Greek word (exc. ovk and ex). 
Other consonants are dropped at the end of a 

word {TTOirjfJia for TTOtTy/xar; yvvai for ywat/<). 
II. Liquids. 

1. V is subject to the following changes : 

a. When followed by o-, it is dropped, with vi- 
carious lengthening only in a few nomina- 
tives (ets, KT€69, ovSets, i^rjSelSj /xeXds, raXcts), and 

in the verbal ending -vo-c {Xvovo-l for Xvo-vat; 

XeXvKOLO-L for XeXvKd-vo-L). 
Rem. V followed by cr— 

1. remains in the 2nd pers. sing. perf. ind. 
middle (Tre^avo-at), and in the prep, ei/ 
in compounds (ei/o-eto)); 

2. is assimilated in the prep, crw with a 
following o", if o- is foUowedby a vo wel, 
to cro" ((n;crcrtTta for (rwatrta, but cn;- 
(TTpec^a) for crwo-rpec^w). 

b. When followed by a labial, vis changed to 

/X (e/x/^aXXo) for iv/3aXX(o) , 

c. When followed by a palatal, v is changed to 

y {(Tvyyev7j<; for o-wyev?;?). 



17 



d. When followed by \, fji, or p, v is assimilated 
with them (except in the prep, h before p); 

e. g. (TvXXiyisi for o-wXeyo); (TvixixCyvvfxi for crw/xty- 
T/i;/xt* (Tvppio) for o-wpeo)). 

The following table shows the changes of v : 

j^TT = /XTT (k =yK 

+ o-=cr; V + {fS = /x^; i/ + <[y = yy; i/ + <^/xz=^/^ 

1<A = /^^ lx = rx U 
P is doubled after the augment and in compounds 

after a short vowel {eppLTrrov, apprjKTOs), 

nr. Sibilanis. 

(T is subject to the following changes : 

a. When followed by a vowel in the beginning 
of a word, it is sometimes changed to rough 
breathing (To-TTy/xt for o-to-TT^/xt). 

b. When occurring between two vowelSjO-is often 
dropped in personal and case endings {Xvov 

for Xveao] yeVovs for yevecros). 

c. When occurring betv/een two consonants, o- 
is dropped. No three consonants can follow 
each other in succession, unless the middle 
one is a mute and at least one of the others 
is a liquid (except in com pound s — eWrao-ts). 

d. When followed by an other a-, <t is dropped 

(^cracjyeo'L for (rac^ecr-a-t) . 

With J the follo,wing changes occur : 

a. When preceded by v or p, j is vocalized 
(changed to t) and placed before v and p(TetVa> 
for T€V;^w; Setpwfor Sep-jw), 

b. When preceded by X it is assimilated with it 
to AX {(SdXXoj for /3aX-j(x)), 



18 



a. and b 



When preceded by a palatal, or r or 0, it is 
assimilated with them to cror, later Attic tt. 

E. racro-o) for Tay-Joi ; cjivXdcrcrii) for <j>vXaK-J(j) ; 
ipe(r(T(j) for ipeT'Jo) ; ^apUa-aa loY\apieT'Ja ; Kpeco-croyv 

for Kp€T-J(x)V. 

When preceded by 8, it is assimilated with it 

to C (Oavfjid^o) for OavfiaS-Jo)). 

Table showing the above changes with j : 

d.:8+7^C. 



v1 ftv 



^ +7 =0-0-; 



e. 



f and 7 are— 

a. dropped between tw^o vowels (/3o-ds for 

(So-fOSj K€o>/xat for /<€/-a)/Aat); 

^8. vocalized, when not dropped, to v and t 
respectively {yow for yov/:; T78tWforT7§:;a>v^. 



19 



SECOND DIVISION. 

INFLECTION. 

§ 8. Introductory Notes on the Dechrsions. 

(G. §§ 121— 129; H. §§ 128, 133, 172.) 
1. Synopsis of case endings : 





First Decl. 


Second Decl. 


Third Decl. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. Fern. 
V ^ — — ^ 


Neutei 


Mapc. Fern. 


Neuter. 


^ fNom. 


s 






V 


s or — 




S 1 Gen. 








0? 


1^ Dat. 


L 


3 


I 


3 




3 


B 1 Acc. 
^ IVoc. 


V 


V 


a or V 
— or = N 




13 (n. a. v. 










e 






LV 


IV 




LV 


4 


^ f N. V. 


I 




I 


a 


eg 1 


a 


g ! Gen . 
B 1 Dat. 
^ [Acc. 




(OV 


(jJV 






(TL 


S 


6 


s« 1 


a 


^ 1 


a 



^ In Attic prose this o is contracted with the final a 
of the stem into ov [ttoXltov for TroXtra-o). 

^ In prose t is dropped and o contracted with the 
tinal o of the stem into ov (oSov for 680-0, from 
680-to). 

^ In the first and second declensions l subscript, in 
the third t adscript. 

* In the third the ending lv is joined to the stem 
w^ith the connecting vowel o. 

^ In the first and second declensions with the con- 
necting vowel t. In prose the t of the endhig is 
dropped (rt/xats for rt/xa-t-o-t; 68019 for 68o-t-o-t). 

6 In the first and second declensions the final stem 
vowel is lengthened before 9: a to d, o to oi) (rt/xag 
from the stem rt/xa; 680^9 from the stem 6S0). 



General rule of accent : The accent remains in 
all cases and numbers on the same syllable as 
in the nominatiye singular; and in adjectives 
and participles the accent of the feminine and 
neuter remains on the same syllable as in the 
corresponding masculine —a^ far as the quanti- 
ty of the ultima allows (according to § 3, Rem. 
1 and 2). 

E]xc. 1. First declension: 

a. Nouns accent the ultima in thegen. 
plural (contraction of d-wv to -wv). 

b. Adjectives of the :Srst and third de- 
clensions likewise accent the ultima 
in the gen. plural fern. (xo^pf-^o'o-Cjv 

from \apUi<;, -[ecraa^ -Uv), 

Exc. 2. Third declension: 

a. Monosyllabic stems, ywrj, kvwv ac- 
cent the ultima in the genitive and 
dative of all numbers {Oyp, 0r}p6<;, 

Orjpt; Oqpoiv; 6rjpC)v, Orjpo-t); SOme Syn 
COpated stems (TraTrjp, yao-T-qp, fJirjrrjp, 
Ovydrrjp), and ovSets, fMrj^eis (theSC tW^O 

also in the feminine) accent the 
ultima in the genitive and dative 
singular. 

Rem. The foUowiug monosjjUabic stems retain the ac- 
cent on the nom. sing, tone-syllable (i. e. they 
are regular) : 

1. Participles and the interrogative pronoun 
Tts (wv, ovTos, ovTLj etc; rts, rtVos, rm, etc.). 

2. was in the gen. and dat. phiral {irdvTm, 
Traat). 



21 



8. In the gen. dual and plural of Tratg, S/xto?, ^w? 
T/o(iJ9, oS?, 8a 5 (gen. 8a8o?), 17 t^aJ? (gen. 
<^a)8og), TO (^0)9 (gen. c/xjoto?), /cpa? (not nsed 
in the nom.; gen. Kparo^). 

The accent is recessive, when it is as far from 
the ultima as possible; i.e., in polysyllables: on 
the antepenult, if the ultima is short; on the 
penult, if the ultima is long; in dissyllables : on 
the penult. The following words have recessive 
accent : 

a. SeoTTTOT?;? in the voc. singular (SfWora); 

b. aSeAc^o? in the voc. singular (a8eA</)e); 

c. adjectives of material in -co? in the uncon- 
tracted forms ; 

d. words compounded with voo?, ttXoo?, poo?, 
both when contracted and uucontracted; 

e. in the voc. singular of syncopated nouns in 
-rjp {^rjfjLrjrrjp in all CHSCsj, and (with shorten- 
ing of the stem vowel) 'AttoAAwv, Iloo-etSwv, 
o-diTrjp] further TpLrjprj^, and compound bary- 
tone proper names in -w and -779, except 

those in -4>p(ov (Trarep, '^AttoXAov, crC)Tep, Tpirjpe^, 
'Aya/x€/xvo]/, ScoKpare?); 

f . in all cases of : 

a. comparatives (lySiW, tJSiov, etc.); 
f3 adjectives in -rjiJODv^ -aip-wv, and compounds 
in -WF, except those in -<^pw (eX 

eAer/p-ov, etc.j evhulpnav ^ evSat/xov, etc); 

y. barytone adjectives in -aS?;?, -dpK-q^^ and 

compounds of ^(9o?, ero?, /x^KO?, />tey€^o9, d/cr/ 
(avOa8rj<;^ avOaSe<;, Ctc , (JvvrjOy]<;, avvrjOe'^, Ctc; 



§ 9. First Declension. 

(G. §§ 168-187; H. §§ 134-147.) 
All stems of the first declension terminate in -a. 
This final a of the stem is changed to -q in the 
singular, except in the following cases: 

a. It is retained throughout the singu]ar,^\hen 
]^receded by e. t. or p (and in some proper 
names). 

b. It is retained in the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative of feminine stems after an S- 
sound : o-, o-o- (rr) . C. after AX, in stems in 
-atm and -etm, and in a few special words, as 
&atra (mode of life, "diet"), /xept^m (worry). 

c. It is retained in the vocative singular of 
most masculines, i. e. all that in the nom. 
sing', end in -a?, all in -r/y?, in compound words, 
and in names of nations in -77?. 

Quantity. 

a. The final a of the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative singular is long, when preceded 
by a vowel or otherwise short. 

Exc. A few in -pa and some in -eta. E. g. 

yecfivpa, jULoipa . akijOaa . 

b. The final a of the dual is alwavs long: also 
the termination -ag, wherevei' occurring in 
the first declension (-a? is short in the third 
declension, except in stems in -ev). 

Accent See § 8, 2, Exc. 1, a, b ; and same S, 3, a. 
Contraction, 

1. The gen. plural a-wv is contracted to -C)v; but 
in adjectives of the first and second declen 
sions the accent of the gen. phir. fem. is de- 
termined by the corresponding masculine. 



28 



2. €a in the dual and plural are always con- 
tracted to d; in the singular to 77, except 
after a vowel or to a (see § 7, A, II, 2, b, 
Kem. 1 and 2). 

§ 10. Second Declension. 

(G. §§ 189-203; H. §§ 151-162.) 

1. The stems of the second declension terminate in 
-o (only a few, those of the so-called Attic second 
declension, in -co). 

2. The final o is — 

a. lengthened to co in the dat. sing, and nom., 
accus., and voc. dual.; to ov in the accus. 
plur.; 

b. weakened to € in the voc. sing, masculine 
and feminine ; 

c. dropped in the gen. plur. neuter (before the 
endings -wi/ and -a). 

d. In the gen. sing, the termination -ov arises 
from the contraction of the final stem, vowel 
-o and the ending -o (originally -co); thus -ov 
for o-to. 

3. Contraction in the second declension is regular 
with the following exceptions: ea in the neuter 
plural is contracted to d; and oa in the neuter 
plural is contracted to d in adjectives of three 
endings, but is not contracted in adjectives of 
two endings. 

4. The accent of a contracted ultima presents the 
following irregularities in the second declension : 
a. In adjectives of 7i?ateria.7 the contracted ul- 
tima takes the circumflex^ although neither 



24 



of the contracted vowels has had the accent; 
and in the nom., ace, and voc. dual the 
acute, although the first has had the accent. 

b. In adjectives in -oo? the nom., ace, and voc. 
dual take the acute, although theflrst of the 
contracted vowels has had the accent. 

c. In adjectives compounded with i/oos (mind), 
ttAoos (sailing, voyage by sea), and poos 
(flood), the neuter plural oa is not con- 
tracted, and the contracted ultima takes Z20 
accent, even if one of the contracted vowels 
has had the accent. fCf. § 8, 3, d.) 

Kem. Compound adjectives of the second declen- 
sion have only two endings. 

§ 11. Third Declension. 

(G. §§ 205-269; H. §§ 163-206.) 

1. Most of the stems of the third declension ter- 
minate in a consonant: a) liquids (in -v, -p, and 
one in -X) ; b) mutes (in Si labial: tt, (3, Sb lingual: 
T, 8, 9; Si palatal: k, y, x); c) in o-. Comparatively 
few terminate in a vowel: a) in l and v; b) in w 
and o; c) in a diphthong: av, ev, ov. 

Rem. The stem is most easily found in the gen. 
sing., by dropping the ending -os. 

2. For case endings see the tables. Note particu- 
larly the following cases : 

a. The nominative singular masculine and 
feminine is formed sigmatically [hj adding o-). 
Then a labial mute + o- are represented by 
xj/ ; a palatal mute + o- by ^ ; a lingual mute 
followed by o- is dropped, leaving no length- 



25 



enin^, so also a v before cr, but vt before or 
is dropped, leaving vicarious lengthening 
(§ 7, A, I, 2); oxjtone stems in -v and 
monosyllabic stems in -l lengthen the final 
stem vowel. 

Exc. The nom. sing. masc. and fern, is 
formed asigmaiically (without cr): 

1. In (T-stems and liquid stems (exc. 
in aX?; sea, and stems in -tv, and 
in €19, one ; Krets, comb ; ovSeis, fj^rj- 

Sets, no one; /xeXas, black; raXa?, 

enduring, miserable), by giving 
formative lengthening to the last 
stem vowel (§ 7, A, I, 1). 

2. In stems in -ovt, by dropping rand 
lengthening o to w (exc. in SSovs, 
tooth, and participles of the con- 
jugation in -/xt). 

3. In stems in -o, by lengthening oto 
(0 (exc. in atSw?, shame, and ^w?, 
aurora) . 

The accusative singular masculine smd femi- 
nine is formed by adding a. 
Exc. 1. Vowel stems in t, v, av, and ov, form 
their acc. sing, by adding v {ttoXl-v^ 

Pov-v) . 

Exc. 2. Barytone stems in a lingual pre- 
ceded by I or V, form their acc. sing, 
by dropping the lingual and adding 
V (sometimes, though less frequent- 
ly, a); e. g. KOpvv for Kopvdv, or Kopvda. 

The vocative singular is generally the same 



as the stem (but noun and adjective stems 
in -vT drop the r ; see § 7, B, I, 9). 

Exc. 1. The vocative singular = the nomi- 
native: 

a. in oxjtone liquid stews (with 
the exception of syncopated 
stems in -€p); 

13. in mute steins, except noun and 
adjective stems in -vr; 

Eem. Some barj^tone stems in -lS may have the 
voc. sing, eitlier = the stem, or = the 
nom.; the noun irais, child, always has 
the voc, TraT. 

y. in stems in -w. 
Exc. 2. The vocative singular terminates 
in -ot, in stems in -o. 

The dative plural adds -o-t to the stem. A v 
or a lingual mute before o- is dropped with- 
out affecting the stem ; but v + r before a 
are both dropped, leaving vicarious length- 
ening to a preceding short vowel (exc. in 
adj. in -vt, which in the dat. plur. — as also 
in the formation of the feminine stem and 
of the comparative— have a second aiy stem 
in only -v (r dropped), and therefore form 
bheir dat. plur. in -eo-t, without lengthening). 
The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
singular neuter are the same as the stem. If, 
however, the stem terminates in an^^ other 
consonant sound than a v, p, or anS-sound, 
this is dropped (cf. § 7, B, I, 9). 
Rem. Instead of dropping a final r, it is changed 
to (7 : 



27 



1. in the neuter of the perfect participle 
active (stem XeXi^Kor, nom. sing, neuter 
XeXvKos); 

2. in a few neuter nouns ; e. g. K€pas for 
Kepar (horn), repas for repar (wonder), 
<^W9 for <^a)T (light), o?9 for ovt (ear). 

3. Eliding a- stems. 

a. Infection is regular, except that neuter noun 
stems in -es change their last e to o in the 
nom., ace, and voc. sing. 

b. The final o- of the stem, when followed by 
a vowel (i. e. when it comes between two 
vowels), is dropped, and adjoining vowels 
always contracted in all stems in -es, and in 
yrjpa<s (old age), yepas (prize), K/oea? (meat); 
but in other stems in -a? onlj in the dat, 
sing, and in the nom., ace, and voc. plur. 

c. The contracted ultima in the gen. dual and 
plur. of TpL7]pr]<;, avTapKr)^, and adjectives com- 
pounded with ^^09, takes Z70 accez^t, although 
the first of the contracted vowels has had 
the accent. 

Rem. €£ in the norn., ace, and voc. dual is contract- 
ed to -rj. 

4. Stems in -i and -v. 

a. Noun stems in -l, and adjective stems in -v 
change the final stem vowel (t and v) to e in 
all cases, except in the nom,, ace, and voc. 
sing. 

Rem. Also Trrj^vs (dibit), ireXeKV^ (ax), aaTv 
(city), and the plural iyx^XcL<; (eels), and 
TT/oeo-^ets (ambassadors), change the pnal v 
to as do the noun stems in t. 

b. Contraction takes place in the dat. sing., 



and the noni., ace, and voc. plur. in the 
stews that change the final vowel. 

c. Attic genitive (in and -wv, where w and 
the preceding e are regarded as one syllable, 
and therefore do not prevent the accent from 
being, seemingly, on the antepenult— TroXewi/) 
is taken b\^ the masc. and fern, nouns \hdit 
change the final stem vowel, aiid in aarv (not 
in any other neuter noun, nor in adjectives). 

d. The accus.plur. of the third declension, when 
contracted, is always tlie same as the con- 
tracted noni. plur. 

Stems in a diphthong {-av, -ev, -ov), 

a. The v, when coming between two vowels, is 
(changed to f and) dropped. 

b. Stems in -tv take the Attic genitive and con- 
tract adjoining vowels in the dat. sing, and 
the nom. and voc. plur. 

c. Stems in -av and -ov contract only the acc. 
plur., to -avs and -oi)?. 

12. Adjectives of the First and Third Declensions. 

(G. §§ 318-340; H. §§ 228-244.) 
The feminine stem of these adjectives is formed 
by adding :;a to the masculine stem. This j is 
subject to the following changes : 

a. In stems in -v, j is vocalized (to t) and t 
placed heiove V (transposition). 

b. In stems of the perfect participle active, 
originall}^ ending in -for, the feminine at first 
ended in -for-ja, which then was changed to 
-vT-ja, -vna, and fin all \^ -via. 

c. In stems in -vr, j is changed to o-, and vr fol- 



29 



lowed by o- is dropped, leaving vicarious 
lengthening to the preceding short vowel. 

E. g. XvovT-Ja^ \vovT-(Ta, Xvovaa; Xvcavr-Ja^ Xvcravr-aa^ 
Xvcracra; SvvT-^a^ Swr-cra^ Svcra; Xv6evT-Ja. XvOevr-ca^ 
XvOeiaa. 

Exc. Adj, stems in -e^r employ a secondary 
stem in -er, and when -ja is added, r 
and J assimilate into o-o-; e. g, x^ptWo-a 

from \apieT-Ja. 

d. The a of the 720Z27., ace, and voc. sing, fern, ot 
these adjectives is short ; the gen. plur. fern. 
accents the ultima. 
2. Adjectives of two endings, with all forms ac- 
cording to the third declension, are those from— 

a. stems in -v and -p ; 

b. stems in -es; 

c. stems in -6. 

Rem. 1. Comparatives in -w (stem in -ov) drop v in 
the acc. sing. masc. and fern,, and in the 
nom.,acc.,ajnd voc. plur., and the adjoin- 
ing vowels are contracted. E. g. /^cXtlm 
for ^eXrco-a] ^eArtov? for /^eArto-es, etc.; 
from the stem ^cXtlov. 

Kem. 2. Mofit of the eoinpoiind bar y fore Si(l}ecti\e^ in 
-€? have recessive accent (cf. § 8,3,f, y); and 
in the gen. dual andpiur. they do not accent 
the contracted ultima, although the first of 
the contracted vowels has had the accent. 
E.g. avrapKeoLv, contr. avrapKoiv] airapKcW, 
contr. avrdpKMv. 

§ 13. Comparison of Adjectives. 

(G. §§ 350-357 ; H. §§ 248-253.) 
1. To form the comparative and superlative stems, 
-Tcpo and -raro respectively are suffixed to the ad- 



jective stew. Before these suffixes some stems 
are changed, as follows: 

a. by lengthening the final stem vowel o to w—in 
stems in o with a short penult (stem o-o<^o : o-o- 

b. by dropping the ^z?a/ o— in yepatos, sometimes in 

TraXato? and 0-xoAatos (yepacTepos, ye/oatraros); 

c. by adding es—in stems in -ov, 

and TO— in stems compounded with x^/ots 

( ei'Sat/xwV; evSaLfxov-€(r-T€.po<;j evSat fxov- ecr-Taro<s ; eTrt^o^/ots 
€7n)(apL-T6-T€pos , i7n)(apL-T6-raTos) ; 

d. by dropping the fea/ 8tez77 vowel and inserting— 

a. at — in /xeo-os, to-o?, 6iI/lo<s ; Sometimes in tStos 

r]av)(os, (piXos (/xecr-atrepoSj /xeo--atTaTO?; </)tX-atr€po5 
(^tX-atraro?); 

/5. es — in stems in -oo (stem ewoo: evVovo-repog, 
evvovcrraros; from evvo-ea-Tepos, evvo-ecr-TaTO^) ; 

y. t9— in XaXos, TTTwxos, and some stems of the 

first declension (XaX-tV-re/oos, XaX-tor-raro?; kXcV- 

TYj^j KXeTTT-tcr-repos, KXeTrr-tV-raros) . 

Rem. Stems in -evr employ a secondary stem in 
-er (stem ^apievr : yapUi<;^ )(api ear epos, X^" 
pUcTTaTos, from ^apier-repos, xapieT-raTOs ; 
cf. §7. B, 1,4). 

A few stems form their comparative and super- 
lative by suffixing' -lov {-jov), -lo-to respectiveh'. Be- 
fore these suffixes the ^725/ FOire/ is dropped, 
and in stems ending in -po, p is also dropped. 

This is the form of comparison of a number of 
irregulars, and also in : 

rjSvs (sweet), riSL(DV (for yi8-Jwv), rjSio-Tos; 

rax^s (swift), Odaawv (for rax:/wv), raxto-ros; 

ato-xpo? (shameful), ato-xtW, ato-xto-ros; 
ixOpos (hostile), ixOiwv, cxOlo-tos. 



§ 14. Numerals. 

(G. §§ 375, 380; H. § 290.) 

1. Infleciion. The cardinal numbers from 5 to 100 
inclusive are indeclinable. For the inflection of 
the first four cardinal numbers see the tables. The 
numbers from 200 and upwards and all the ordi- 
nals are inflected like adjectives of three endings 
of the first and second declension. 

Rem. The compounds ovSetq and /XT/Sets, no one, are in- 
flected exactly Uke eh, accenting the ultima in 
the gen. and dat. sing, of all genders. 

2. The accent of the numerals is recessive, with the 
exception of eTrra, oKTw, ivvea, cKaroV, and all ending 
in -o-Tos. 

§ 15. Pronouns. 

(G. §§ 389, 391, 399, 406, 409, 987, 988; H. §§ 261, 
265, 269, 272.) 

1. Of the original personal pronoun ov, ot, e, only 
the forms ot, (T(f>Q)v, o-^to-t, cr<^as occur in Attic 
prose, but only as indirect reflexives and only in 
connection with an inSniti ve or a participle, 

2. The oblique cases of avros are used as a personal 
pronoun of the third person. When not used as 
a personal pronoun, avros with the article means 
the same; without the article self. E. g. ot avrol avSpe^, 
the same men ; but : avrol ol avSpes, the men them- 
selves. 

3. Instead of the original possessive pronouns of the 
third person os and o-(/)er epos, the possessive genitive 
of avTos (sing, or plur.) is used, or, if emphatic, the 
genitive of a demonstrative pronoun. 



32 



4. Of the demonstrative pronouns, oSe refers to the 
first person and what concerns him; ovro^ simi- 
larh^ to the second, and e/ceTvo? to the third. 
Rem. 1. When o3e and ovro? are used correlatively, 
refers to something ah^eady mentioned, 
oSe to something which is to be mentioned 
("the foUo wing," "as foUows"). 
Rem. 2. When ovros and cKeTvo? are used correlatively, 
they both refer to objects already mentioned : 
€/<eti/09 = "the former"; ovro<; = "the latter." 

§ 16. Introductory Notes on the Verbs. 

(G. §§ 130-135, 448, 458, 465; H. §§ 301, 301, 305 
—307, 386, 391.) 

1. The tenses of the indicative are: principal ienses, 
the present, perfect, future; and historical tenses, 
the imperfect, pluperfect, aorist. 

2. Stems, a. The simple stem is the complex of sounds 
which constitutes the fundamental part of the 
verb and therefore is found in ever^^ form of the 
verb. b. The tense stems are the various com- 
plexes of sounds which constitute the fundamental 
parts of the different tenses, and which are formed 
by suffixing the various tense signs to the simple 
stem. 

3. Connecting vowels (^^variable voAvels,'' or ^'mode- 
vowels'') follow the tense stem and precede the 
personal endings. 

a. The connecting vowels oi the indicative s^re o 
in all the first persons (in the first pers. sing, 
active, o is lengthened to w) and the third plur., 
elsewhere e. 

Exc. 1. The connecting vowel of the first 
aorist ind, middle is a throughout ; 



33 



of the first aorist indicative active 
and the perfect active, a, except in the 
third per s, sing., e. 
Exc. 2. The connecting vowel of the pluper- 
fect active is et throughout, except in 
the third pers. plur., e. Obs. In the 
first and second person sing, rj also 
is frequently used. 
Exc. 3. In the perf and phiperf. middle and 
passive no connecting vowels occur. 
The connecting vowels olt\i^ subjunctive wi^e 
(X) in all the first persons and in the third per- 
son plural, otherwise 

The connecting vowel of the optative is ot (in 
the active of the second conjugation, irj, in the 
middle and passive, t). 

Exc. 1. The first aorist optative active and 
middle has at. 

Exc. 2. In contract verbs the sing, opt, act. 

regularly takes for its connecting 
vowel oirj (''Attic optative"), some- 
times also in the dual and plural, very 
rarely, how^ever, in the third pers. 
plur. 

The connecting vowel of the imperative is o 

before the ending v, otherwise e. 

Exc. In the first aor. act, and middle— a (with 
the exception of the second pers sing.: 
in the act., o; in the middle, at.) 

The connecting vowel of the infinitive is gener- 

ally e. The first aor. act. has at; the first aor. 

middle, a; the perf. middle and passive, none. 

(For other details see tables.) 



f. The connecting vowel of the participle is o. 
Exc. 1. In the ^irst aor. act. and middle, a. 
Exc. 2. In the perf. middle and pass., none. 
Rem. The passive aorists are conjugated like the 
second aorist active of the conjugation in 

-fJLi. 

The Greek has two conjugations : 

a. the conjugation in -wjoinsthe personal endings 
to the stems with connecting vowels in the 
present and the imperfect, and the second 
aorist acti ve and middle; 

b. the conjugation in -fXL has no connecting 
vowels in the tenses named (the 8u/yu7?ctiT e 
and optative, how^ever, have connecting voav- 
els also in verbs in -/xt.) 

The accent of the verbs is recessive (cf. § 8, 8j. 

Exc. 1. The second pers. sing, imperative of the 
second aorist takes the accent on the 
ultima, in the active: only in the forms 
etVe, iXOe, evpe, tSe, Xa^e; in the middle: al- 

AVayS {/SaXov, TpaiTOv). 

Exc. 2. The infinitives in -vat; the infinitive of the 
first aorist active, the second aorist mid- 
dle and the perfect passive accent the 
penult. 

Exc. 3. The perfect participle passi ve accents the 
penult. 

Exc. 4. The participle of fihe second aorist active, 
first conjugation, and all active parti- 
ciples whose nom. sing. masc. ends in 
(exc. the participle of the first aor. act.) 
accent the iz/ti/i^a in the nom. sing, masc , 
and in the other forms according! v (see 
§8,2). 



35 



Exc. 5. In compounds the accent can not go 
back, a. beyond the augment (Trap-eVxov, 
aTT-rjyov); b. bcjond the original tone- 
syllable of the jSrst part (d7ro-8o? from 
oLTToStSoj/xt), exc. in elision {avaye from avd 

and aye). 

6. Quantity, The termination t is short {Xvovo-X) ; so 
also the connecting vowel a, unless it has received 
vicarious lengthening (Xwds for XvaavTs; XcXvKdo-t 

for XeXvKav(n). 

§ 17. Formation of Tense Stems. 

(G. §§ 567-715, 776; H. §§ 392-475.) 
I. Primary Tenses. 

1. The Present Stem. 

(The present and the imperfect.) 

a. Same as the simple stem (^^stem-class"); in verbs 
whose simple stem ends in a vowel (vowel stems). 
E. g. Ti/xd-(o from the simple stem rt/xa. 

b. Formed by adding r to the simple stem (^'T- 
class''), generally in verbs whose simple stem ends 
in a labial mute, tt, /3, <i> (labial stems). E.g. tuVt-o) 
from the simple stem tvtt; (3Xd7rT-o) from^SXa^,- Oolttt-o) 

from ra</). 

Rem. TLKT-oi from t€k. 

c. Formed hj adding j to the simple stem (Jod-class): 
1. In palatal stems (ending in k, y, or x)? where 

J is assimilated with the final palatal into o-o- 
(or: later Attic, rr). E. g <i>vXdTT-(i) fromt^t'XaK- 
y-o), simple st. <i>vXaK; rdrT-w from Tay-j-o), simple 

St. ray; rapdao-M from TapaX'J-ay, simple st. rapax- 
Rem. In a few verbs whose simple stem ends in 
y, and which denote a sound, the final y + / 



make I; e. g\ oljjiot^o), from ot/xoy^z-w (from 
ot/xot = AToe be to me ! ). 

In stems ending in S, where j is assimilated 
with the final lingual into E. g. Oavfxal-oy 

from OavfjiaS-J-o), simple St. Oav/xaS. 
Rem. In verbs wliose stem ends in r or 0 the final 
lingual -j-y make crcr (rr): e. g\ ap/xdrr-wfrom 

3. In liquid stems (ending in A, v, or p), where j is 
s^oealized (= changed into t) and placed be- 
fore the final liquid (in the Attic, however , 
are assimilated into XX) E. g. 6<jf)etX-w (Homer- 
ic) from o^eX-;-co, simple st. o(^eX; dyyeXXwfrom 
dyyeX-yw, simple st. dyyeX; cj^atv-o) from (j^av-J-o), 

simple st. <^ai/; cnrup-o} from (jTrep-j-iD^ simple st. 

CTTrep. 

A number of verbs form their present stem more 
or less irregularly. Thus the present is formed : 

1. bv lengthening or diphthongizing the stem 

vowel: e. g. ^er-y-w from ^l7; XetV-o) from Xitt; 
TrXe-o) for 7r\ev-o) from ttXi;; 

2. by adding e to the simple stem ; e. g. yap,-e-co 

from ya/x : SoK-e-oj from SoK : 

3. by adding v: ve; av: av with an other v inserted 
before the final stem consonant, if it is pre- 
ceded by a short vowel ; to consonant stems : 
vvv, to vowel stems ; o-k, lo-k; prefixing present 
reduplication ( = repetition of the initial con- 
sonant with 6) ; or in the last two ways 

combined. E. g. cf^Od-v-o); iK-vi-oixai; alcrO-dv-oiJLaL : 
\a-v-0-dv-(o from Xa^; oXXr-/xt for oX-ia'-/xt, jJiiy-vv-fJLL : 
dpe-o-K-o), €vp-L(TK-Ci) [ St-8(jD-/At, Ti-Orj-iJii yt-yrco-cTK-a), /xt- 
/jLvrj-aK-d). 



37 

2. The Future Stem, 

(The future and first aorist active and middle.) 

a. The future stem is regularly formed by adding o- 
to the simple stem, in ropre/ stems giving forma- 
tive lengthening to the tinal stem vowel, in mute 
stems applying the phonetic law, as given in § 7, 
B, I, 2 and 5, i. e.: a labial and a palatal with o- 
are represented by ij/ and ^ respectively ; a lingual 
followed by o- is dropped ; + a lingual followed by 
o- are both dropped, leaving vicarious lengthen- 
ing to a preceding short vowel. E. g rt/xa-w, rt/x?;- 

cr-o), Tt/x>y-cr-o/xat, i-TLjUirj-cr-a, i-TLfJirj-cr-diJirjv 5 KaAvTr-r-o), 
KaXviff-o), KaXviff-OfJiai^ i-KaXvilz-a, i-KaXvij/-djJirjv ] irpdrT-o), 
TT/oaf-CD, TTpd^-Ofxai, e-TT^af-ttj i-Trpa^-dinrjv * iXirL^-a), iXTrccr-Wj 
etc.; o-7r€i/8-(jD, CTTretcr-co, etC. 

b. Liquid stems deviate from the above rule. 

1. There future active and middle stem is formed 
by adding e to the simple stem. E. g. (^acVco, 

cl>av-€-(x), contracted to <^avco, <^ai/-€-o/xat to (l>avov- 
/xat ; dyyeAXco, dyyeX-e-o), Contracted tO dyyeXw. 

2. Their i^r^t aorist active and middle stem is 
formed by lengthening the last stem vowel (e 
to €t ; t to I ; 1^ to t7 ; a to 77, only after t or /□ to 

d); e. g. </)atVw, e-4>rjv-a, simplest. <^av; dyyeAXo), 
77yyetX-a, simple St. dyyeA. 

Rem. 1. The Attic ftytture, an asigmatk contracted future 
active and middle in -w, -ov/jLat, is taken by KaAew, 
to call, reXeo), to finish, eXaww to drive, /xd^o- 
/xat, to fight, by most verbs in -dvvvfXL and -eV- 
i/v/xt, and verbs in -it,w of more than one s^dla- 
ble in the present stem. 

Hem. 2. Tlie Doric future, a sigmatic contracted future mid- 
dle in -o-ov/xat, is taken by rew, to swim, Trreo), 
to breath, blow% TrAew, to sail (all in-evcroG/xat), 



38 



KXato), to cry (-awoTJ/xat), cj^evyo), to flee [-^ov- 
jxai) — all these having also the regular future 
middle; ttlttto), to fall, only TreaovfjiaL. 
Rem. 8. The future perfect is formed by reduplicating 
the future middle; e. g. Ae-Xwo/xat ; Ke-Koxf/ofMaL] 
Ip-pLxl/ofxai. 

3. The Perfect Active Stem. 

(The perfect and pluperfect active.) 
The perfect active stem is formed by adding k to 
the reduplicated simple stem, in vowel stems giving 
formative lengthening to the fnal stem vowel, and 
changing e in monosyllabic liquid stems to a. E. 

g. TLjJid-<jL>, Te-TLfXTj-K-a ; <f)LXe-(Dj Tre-cfylXyj-K-a * (TTretp-o), e-airap-K-a J 
8etp-o), Se-Sap-K-a. 

Exc. Labial and palatal stems, instead of take 
' (rough breathing) for tense sign ; i. e. they 
aspirate the final stem consonant, according 

to §7,B, I, 6. E.g. TVTT-T-iD, re-Tv^-a foF t^-tvit- 

'-a ; TTpoLTT-o), Tre-TTpa^-a f OF Tre-irpay- -a. 

Rem. 1. kXlvo), to lean, Kptvw, to judge, retVo), to 
stretch, /cretVo), to kill, ttAwo), to wash, 
drop the final v. 

Rem. 2. Six mute verbs change their e to o : Tre/xTrw, 
to send, 7re-7ro/>t</)-a ; KXeVro), to steal, Ke- 
KXocjy-a ; Xeyw, to collect, €t-Xo;^-a ; rpeVo), 
to turn, r€-Tpocf>-a; rpec^oo, to nourish, re- 
Tpo<p-a^ (TTpi<p(x)j to turn, e-(TTpocf)-a. 

4. r^e Perfect Middle Stem. 

(The perfect and pluperfect middle and passive.) 
The perfect middle stem is formed by reduplicating 
the simple stem (no tense sign), lengthening the final 
vowel in fo PT^e7 stems, and changing e of monosyh 



35 

labic liquid stems to a. In kXIvm^ etc. (see 3, Rem. 
1) V is dropped. 
Rem. In the three mute verbs TpeVa), rpicj^u), o-Tpicfxij^ e is 
changed to a. 

5. The First Passive System. 

(The first future and first aorist ijassive.) 
The stem of the first passive system is formed by 
adding Oe to the simple stem (in the future Avith the 
tense sign o-j ; and lengthening e in to rj in all modes 
of the future (thus -Orjs-), hut on\j in the indicative, 
imperative and infinitive of the aorist; lengthening 
the final vowel of vowel stems; and cha^nging e of 
monosyllabic liquid stems to a, and dropping v in 
KXtvo), etc. (see 3, Rem. 1). Note phonetic changes 
according to § 7, B, I, 1. 

II. Secondary Tenses. 
1. The Second Aorist Active and Middle. 

These tenses are formed directly from the simple 
stem, without tense sign,— in some verbs hj changing 
€ to a (this mostly in monosyllabic stems), hy syn- 
cope, by Attic reduplication, or by the last two pro- 
cesses combined. E. g. /^aAAw, e-/3aX-ov; TpeVa), t-rpaiv-ov; 

rjv-eyK-ovy from the stem iv€K, the aorist of cf^ipu). 

Rem. The indicative is conjugated like the corresponding im- 
perfect, the other modes like the corresponding modes of 
the present. 

2. T/ie Second Future and Second Aorist Passive, 

These tenses are the same as the corresponding pri- 
mary tenses less 0, and less the aspiration caused by 
9] monosyllabic stems, however, changing their € to a. 



40 

E. g. cfiavOyjcroixaL, icj^avOrjV — cfyavrjcrofJiaL^ icf^dvrjv^ frOTTl (f^atvo) ; 
crraXOrjcroixai^ iaTaXOrjv — crraXTycro/xat, kcrrdX-qv^ frOlU crreAXo) : 
rpe<pOi](TOiJiai, eTpeffyOrjV — T/oaTTT/cro/xat, iTpaTrrjv, froill Tpiiroj. 

3. The Second Perfect Stem. 

(The second perfect and second pluperfect active.) 
To form this stem reduplicate the simple stem (no 
tense sign) , lengthening a of the stem to rj {only after 
c and p to d), and changing e to o. The conjugation 
is the same as that of the corresponding primary 

tenses. E. g. OdXXw, ri-OrjX-a; Kpd^o} (stem Kpay). Ke-Kpdya; 

(TTrCtpWj €-(T7T0p-a. 

III. The Verbal Adjectives. 

The verbal adjectives are formed by adding the ter- 
minations -Tos and -reos to the simple stem^ which 
suffers the same changes as in the third person sing, 
perfect ind. middle before the ending -rat. (See 1:4.) 

E. g. Xv(D\ [Xi-Xv-rai) Al'-tos, Xv-t€.o^ ; 

TrpdrTM'. (7re-7TpaK-raL)7rpaK-r6s, TrpaK-reos ; 
(T7re[po}\ {e-dTrap-rai) cnrap-ro^^ (TTrap-reos ; 
reXeco : (re-reXecr-Tat) reXecr-ro?, reXecr-reos. 
Rem. Verbal adjectives in -ros express ijossihilify or com- 
pleted action; those in -reo? necessity = tlie gerun- 
dive in Latin. 

IV. General Remarks on the Tense Stems. 

1. A number of vowel stems do not, according to 
therule, ^'lengthen the final stem vowelm all primary 
tenses with the exception of the present and imper- 
fect''. The most common of these are: 

crTTttO), to pull, cTTracra), IcnvaKa. PaSS. tcnraa fxat ^ icnrdcrOrjv, 
a-Tracrro?. 



41 

yeXaoj, tO laUgh, yeXaaofxac, iyeXacra. PaSS. yeXacr^T/o-o/xat, 

iyeXdcrOrjv. 
(iijj, to boil, l^(TO), €^€(7a. 

T/0€o>, to tremble, flee, r/oeo-w, trpeaa; arpecrro^ (fearless). 
apK€0)j to ward off, dpKeo-o), ripK€.(Ta. 

reXew, tO end, finish, reXicroj (Attic reXu)) ^ ereXeo-a, rereXcKa. 

Pass. rereXeo-zxat, iTtXecrOrjV. 
atSeo/xat, tO feel ashamed, to respect, atSeVo/xat, ySeo-fxai, 

rJSeaOrfV. 

iXaa) (commonly eXaww), to drive, march, eXao-w (Attic 

cXw), rjXd(Taj iXi/jXaKa, PaSS. rjXdOrjVj iXrjXd piai, 
dpoin^ to plough, till, dp6(j(xi, rjpocra. PaSS. rjpodrjv^ dprjpoiuiai. 

2. Vowel steins which do not lengthen the final stem 
vowel in any tense add a in the perfect middle 
stem, in the first passive system and in the ver- 
bal adjectives, except eXaww and dpow. Also a few 

others take this o-, as irXio), TriTrXevo-ixaL ; KeXevw^ KeK€- 
Xevap^ac; Slkovo), rjKOvcrpiaL. 

3. Several stems add o- only in the first passive sys- 
tem, but not in the perf. middle stem. Thus: 

Xpo-Ofxac, to use, emplo}^, Kexprffiat, ly^prjdOrjV ; pLifxvrjaKO), 

to remind, piifjLvrjfjiaL, remember, ifMvr/o-Orjv; Spdo)^ to 

do, act, SeSpafxai, iSpdaOrjv ; iravoi, tO make CCaSC, 
stop, 7re7rai;/xatj iTravo-Orjv, bilt fut. TTavdrjaopLaL. 

§ 18. Second Conjugation. 

(G. §§ 793-804; H. §§ 311, 385.) 

1. The second conjugation (in -/xt) c/itfer^s' from the 
first (in -w) in the present stem, and in the second 
aorist active and middle. 

Hem. A few verbs in -/xt differ also in tlie perfect and 
pluperfect active. 



42 



2. These tenses of the second conjugation differ from 
the corresponding tenses of the first conjugation 
in the following respects : 

a. The personal endings are attached to the stem 
without connecting vowels, with the exception 
of the third person plural present and perfect 
indicative active, which takes a, the subjunc- 
tive, w^hich takes the usual connecting vowels 
(o) and .7}), and the optative, which takes lt} in 
the active and t in the middle and passive. 

b. Several personal endings in the active differ 
from the corresponding endings in the first 
conjugation : 

a. in the present indicative, -ijh, -o-t; 

^. in the first person singular optative, -v; 

y. in the second person singular imperative, 
-Ol (in the present, however, -Ol is dropped 
and the final stem vowel lengthened, a to rj, 

e to €t, o to ov, V to y)', 

S. in the inSnitive, -vai; 

c. in the nom, sing, masc. of the participle, -s; 
in the third person plural indicative of the 
imperfect and the second aorist, -o-av. 

c. The personal ending -o-at retains o- also in the 
present indicative (rorra-o-at, 8t8o-o-at); and -o-o 
retains o- also in the present imperative and 
the imperfect indicative {rtOe-ao, iSeUvv-ao), ex- 
cept in SvvajJiaL and CTrto-ra/xat. 

d. The short final stem vowel takes formative 
lengthening in the following active forms : 

a. in the singular indicative of the present 
and imperfect; 



43 



in the indicative, imperative^ and infini- 
tive of the second aorist. 
Exc. In the second aorist active of TiOrjixi, 
LYjiJiL and 8tSa)/x6 the :Snal stem vowel 
takes formative lengthening onlyin 
the singular indicative (which forms 
do nofc occur in the Attic prose); 
in the infnitive c is lengthened to et, 
and o to ov] in the imperative there 
is no change {^OrjVy Sovvac, h). 



PART II. 

SYNTAX. 



§ 19. Voices. 

(G. §§ 1230-1248 ; H. §§ 809-820.) 

1. The active voice of many transitive verbs has 
also an intransitive sense; e. g. ayco, I march; eXavVw, 
I ride, march ; Ixw, with an adverb, I am ; (rvfjL/SdXXo), 
I fight; iiJi/SdWo), I invade, empty into; d-rrixa), I am 
distant. 

2. The middle voice has a reflexive sense, and its 
subject is represented as acting: 

a. on himself (transitive or direct middle); e. g. 
TTopcvoi^ I make go, Tropevbixac. I make myself go, pro- 
ceed ; 

b. for himself (indirect middle); e. g. dyo/oa^a>, I buy, 
dyopd^ofxai, I buy f or myself ; 

c. on something belonging to himself (subjective 
middle); e. g. Xv(d, I loose, Xw/xat, 1 loose my own, or with 
my own means, ransom. 

3. With reference to the passive voice the following 
is to be noted : 

a. The passive is used personally not only of verbs 
which govern the accusative, but also of verbs which 
govern the genitive or the dative; e. g. KaTa(f>povdTai o 

Q.vOpo}7ros ; TTLCTTevovTaL ol dyaOoL 



45 

b. Of two accusatives with an active verb the one 
denoting a person is generally made the subject in the 
passive construction. Therefore the cognate accusa- 
tive always remains with the passive. E. g. oV'E\Xrjv€s 

dcjirjpWrjcrav rrjv iXcvOrjpcav (act.! TOv<i ''EAAi^ms rrjv iXevOrjpiav 
acf>eL\ovTo) ; rvTrrerat' rts Setms irX-qya^i (act.: rwro) riva Setms 
TrXr/yas). 

c. The agent is expressed as follows : 

a. when it is a thing, it is expressed by the dative 
of cause (voao) 8ta</)^€t)oeo-^at, to be destroyed by disease), 
or by vTTo with the genitive {v-n-b Xl^xov aTroXiaOai, to per- 
ish by hunger); 

when it is personal, it is expressed by viro with 

the genitive (KXeap^o? lOavarwOrj VTTO r(x)v iv ^TrdpTrj reAwv). 

With the verbal adjectives in -reos, however, the agent 
must be expressed by the dative, and with the perfect 
and pluperfect passive it may be expressed by the da- 
tive {tovto 7roLrjT€Ov jJiOL; ravra avvevrjveyfJiiva rjv roT craTpaTrevovTL 
rrjs )(u)pas). 

Rem. Even the active of many Greek verbs has a passive 
sense and can therefore be modified hy an agent; e. g. airoOvrjo-Kisi, 
I am knied ; cji^vyo), I am accused ; ScKrjv 8t8o)/xt, I am punished. 

§20. Tenses of the Indicative. 

(G. §§ 1250-1270 ; H. §§ 824-850.) 

1. The present represents the action as going on 
in the present time; e. g. tvtttm, I am striking. 

Rem. 1. The historical present is more common than in 
Latin. 

Rem. 2. The present of several verbs has the force of the per- 
fect. Thus always i^kcd, I have come; ot^o/xat, I am gone; 
and frequently verbs of perception {aKovo}, alaOdvojjLat, wwOd- 
vo/xat), and VLK(i), KparCi), (pevyo), olBlkCj. 



46 



2. The imperfeci represents the action as going on 
in the past time, as repeated or continued; e. g. 
cTre/xTTc, he was sending, used to send, or kept sending. 

3. The future represents the action as going on or 
simply coming to pass in the future time; e. g. a^w, I 
shall be leading, or I will lead. 

4. The perfect represents the action as completed 
in the present time with the result remaining; e. g. 
KeKXrjfjiaL, I liave been called, and mj name is; KUr-qixai^ 
I have acquired, I possess; rj Ovpa KeKXeLo-TaL, the door 
has been shut, is now shut. 

5. The pluperfect re^re^ent^ the action as complet- 
ed in the past time with the result remaining; e. g. rj 
Ovpa iK€KX€L(TTo, thc door had been shut, was shut. 

Rem. The pluperfect represents the action in the same re- 
lation to the past as the perfect does to the present time. 

6. The future perfect represents the action as com- 
pleted in the future time with the result remaining; 
e. g. TreTT/oaferat, it shall havc been done, it will be done. 

Rem. The future ijerfect may also represent the action as 
coming to pass in the future with certainty, or immediate! y , or 
simultaneously with another action in the future; e. g\ et /xax^^ 
crvvonj/eTe^ vofxi^eTe iv rrj 8e rfj rj/jLe/jLo. ifxe re KaraKeKoil/ecrdaL 

7. The aorist represents the action as simply com- 
ing to pass, as taking place in the past as something 
momentary, without implying completion, repetition, 
or continuation. 

Rem. 1. Of verbs which signify a state of being or a continued 
action the aorist often denotes the entrance into the state or the 
beginning of the action ; e. g. €7rAovT7yo-a, I became ricli; i/Sao-tXcvaa, 
I became king. 

Rem. 2. In subordinate clauses the aorist often has the force 
of onr pluperfect ; e. g. tovto iTroLrjaev, iirel rj Ovpa iKXeiaOrj, this 
he did, when the door had been shut. 



47 



§ 21. Tenses of the other Modes. 

(G. §§ 1271-1287; §§ H. 851-856.) 

1 . The subjunctive, optative and infinitive of the presen t, 
aorist and perfect may have reference to any time, 

a. The present of these modes denotes the action 
as continued or repeated; e. g. dyaTrw/xev dXATyAoi;?, let us 
love one another (continually). 

b. The aorist denotes the action simply as brought 
to pass; e. g, ol Oeol /3orj0rjcrudv aoi^ may the gods help 
you (in this particular need). 

c. The perfect denotes the action as completed. 
Rem. 1. The tense of the above modes, when dependent 

on another verb, is determined by the tense of the leading 
verb. 

Reni. 2. The subjunctive with av frequently has the force ol 
the future (cf. § 27, 3, III, and § 29, B. 3). 

Rem. 3. The optative and ivfinitive of the future occnr only 
as dependent on another verb and then, as representing the 
future indicative of the independent verb, denote future time 
relatively. 

2. The imperative of — 

a. the present denotes a command for all time; 

b. the aorist denotes a command for a special oc- 
casion; 

c. the perfect denotes a command imiplymg perma- 
nence or finality. 

3. The participle of — 

a. the present represents the action as simulta- 
neous with the action of the leading verb; e. g. dTrr/et 
ravTa Xeyw]/, he dcyjarted while saying this ; 

b. the future represents the action as subsequent 
to the action of the leading verb; e. g. eTrefxij/e Scnav 
ipovvTa, he sent Xenias who should say (after he was 
sent); 



48 

c. the perfect represents the action as preceding 
the action of the leading verb; e. g. ot8a avrov yeypafjyora, 
I know that he has written (and has finished writing); 

d. the aorist represents the eiction^^precedingthe 
action of the leadingverh ; e. g\ ravra etTrwv av^o-Taro, after 
saying this he arose. 

Kem. Only when the leading finite verb is also in the 
aorist, the aorist participle may represent the action as 
simultaneous with the action of the leading verb. This is 
especiall^^ the case in connection with verbs of modified ex- 
istence" (see § 38, 2j. 

§22. The Particle ' AN. 

(G. §§ 1299-1316; H. §§ 857-864.) 

1. The particle av has no direct correlative in En- 
glish. It has the force of such phrases as '^in this 
case,'' ^ ^possibly,'' and implies that the statement 
contained in the clause with which it is connected de- 
pends on a condition, either stated or understood. 

E. g. €t e/ceXewaSj tovto iTrolrjcra av, if YOU had askcd me I 

would (in such a case) have done this ; Xeyots av, you 
might possibl}^ say (if you wish). 

2. The particle av is used inprosewiththefoUowing 
modes : 

a. With the indicative of the historical tenses — 
a. to express a modest assertion in reference to the 

past time ; e. g. Oarrov fj rt? av wero /xerewpov; l^eKopaa-av 

ras d/xa^a9, they brought the wagons out more quickl}^ 
than any one would have thought; 

p. to express the result of a supposition contrary 
to fact; the imperfect Avith reference to the present 
time, the aorist with reference to the past; e. g. €t 
eKeAeiJ€9; tovto Ittolovv av, if \ow asked me (but you do 



49 



not), I would do this ; €t cKeXevo-a?, rovTO iirOLYjcra av, if yoU 

had asked me (but you did not), I would have done 
this ; 

y. sometimes to express iteration in reference to 

the past J e. et Tt5 avTw hoKOLTj /^XaKc Jetv, tiraio-ev aV, if an^^ 

one seemed to him to be sluggish, he would (every time 
this occurred) strike him. 

b. With the subjunciive {av always preceding the 
verb), in conditional , temporal and relative clauses, 
mostly to denote generalization ("whenever," *Svho- 

SOever," etc.); e.g. idv or orav tls^ or oo-tls av tovto iroirjarj^ 

^YjfXL(^(ToiJiev, if or whenever any one, or whosoever — shall 
have done this, him w^e will punish. 

c. With the optative, to express a modest assertion 
in reference to the present or future time; e. g. d\rj9h 
av €17], it may be true; Xeyot (ctTrot) dv rt?^ some one may 
(could) say. 

d . With the infinitive and the participle, when either 
represents a finite mode with dv, i. e. an indicative of 
the historical tenses or an optative with dv; e. g. ^XOoi 
dv [d jSovXoiTo), when in the infinitive, becomes: ol/xat 

avTov iXdeiv dv (or ot/xat av avTov iXOelv) ; in the participle : 
otSa avTov kXOovra dv. 

§ 28. Modes in Independent Sentences. 

(G. §§ 1317-1354; H. §§ 865-875.) 
I. Declarative Sentences (negative, ov). 

1. The indicative, to assert a fact, 

2. The indicative of historical tenses with dv : 

a. in a modest assertion with reference to the past 
(cf. §22,2, a, a); 

b. in the apodosis to a supposition contrary to re- 
ality {el ^ 22, 2, a, /S); 

c. of a repeated action in the past (cf. § 22, 2, a, y). 



50 

II. Wishes (neg-ative, ixrj), 

1. The optative, to express a wish which is consid- 
ered possible to realize, often introduced b}^ eWe or a 
yap; e g. eWe TovTo ttoloIyj^, O that YOU would do this ; 
fXY] TovTo yivoLTo, maj^ this not happen. 

2. The indicative of the historical tenses, to ex- 
press a wis/] which is considered impossible to realize: 

a. the imperfect with reference to present time; 
e. g. eWe TOVTO €7rotag, would that YOU did this (but 3^ou 
do not); 

b. the aorist with reference to past time; el yap 
iv 'AOr}vai^ e/xeti/a9, 0 that j^ou had remained at Athens 
(but YOU did not). 

Rem.l. A wish of the first class (1) may also be expressed 
by (SovXoLfJirjv av with the infinitiTe. 

Rem. 2. A wish of the second class (2) may also be ex- 
pressed by (elO\ d yap) (jj<peXov or by i/SovXo/jirjv av w^ith the 
infinitiTe of the present (in reference to present time) or 
of the aorist (in reference to past time); wcl^eXe Kvpo^ $rjv 
( = eWc K. €^77), O that Cyrus now lived. 

III. Exhortations (negative, fiy), 

1. Mutual exhortations (to one's self and others) are 
expressed by the subjunctive; e g.^aXw? ye awoOvrjo-KwiJLev, 

VTroxetpiOi Se fxrjTTOTe ycvojfxeOa tols TroXefxtocs, let US die houor- 

ably, and let us ncYcr become subject to the enemy. 

2. Exhortations to others are expressed by the im- 
perative; e. g. TOVTO ttoUl, do this; Iovtmv, let them go. 

Rem.l. When negatived, the second person imperative of the 
aorist must, and the third person mai/ be 7'epfaced by the subjunc- 
tive of the same tense; iroiiqcrov TavTa, do this, if negatived, is 
pLT} TTotr/cTTys TttL'Ta; TTOLrjo-aTO) TavTa, let him do this, if negatived, 
is either jj-rj TroL-qo-aTO) TavTa or fXYj TTOLrjar] TavTa. 

Rem. 2. Exhortations to others msiy also be expressed by 
the future indicative or, in a modest way, by the optative 



51 



Avith avj either in the form of an assertion (tovto 7roLOLr]<; aV, 
please do this), or a question with 01^ (ov tovto TroLOirj^ av, 
would you not please do it?), or by the future indicative in- 
troduced by oTTws (oTTws eo-eaOe avSpes, be men = see to it that 
you are men) ; cf. § 30, 3, Rem. 2. 

IV. Questions. 

1. Deliberative questions (negative ijh^) have the 
verb in the subjunctive, mostly the tirst person ; e. g. 
</)co/xei/, y fjLTj <^w/x€v, shall we say yes or no? 

2. Ordinary questions have the same mode as de- 
clarative sentences (for which see this §, I); for the 
same mode is used in the question as would be used 
in the expected answer; ttws vikt^o-w, or FtK^/o-at/xt av, how^ 
shall I, or how could I conquer (the expected answer 

would be : oiTtcd? viKi^o-eLS, or nKT/o-eta? aV) ] TL<i av ecrojcre tov^ 
^AOrjvatovs iv rw UeXoTrovvyjCiaKi^ TroAe/xo), W^ho W^OUld have 

saved etc.— understood : if he had lived (the expected 
answer would be: 6 UepLKXrj^ eo-wo-ei/ av). 

Rem. 1. For an expected affirmative answer ov is used in 
the question; for an expected negative answer, fxrj; e g. apa ov 
TOVTO 7roLrjo-€L<^j will you not do this? (answer: yes); apa fxr] 
TOVTO TroL-rjo-eLs, you will not do this, will you? 

Rem. 2. The most common forms for yes are: eW ra^ra, 
€(7Ttv ovTws, Trdvv /xev ovv, TTw? 8' ov; and TTwg yap ov; or repeat- 
ing the personal pronoun (the subject of the question), with 
ye, or the verb with yap; for no: ov (or /x^) S^ra, /xa At' ov, 
ov8a/xaJ5, /xTiSa/xws, rjKLo-Ta ye, or ttw? yap; or repeating the 
personal pronoun (the subject of the question) or the verb 
with a negative. 

§ 24. Sequence of Modes. 

1. Sequence of mod^s implies the following gen- 
eral principle: The mode of the subordinate clause 
is determined by the tense of the leading verb, so that 
if the verb of the leading clause is in the indicative of 



52 



a historical tense, the verb of the subordinate clause 
is generally in the optative without av. 

2. The application of this general principle is de 
termined by the following special rules: 

a. After the indicative of a historical tense the in- 
dicative, the subjunctive, and the subjunctive with av 
are changed to the optative without av (for examples 
see §25, 3). 

Exc. The following modes remain unchanged: a. 
the indicative of the historical tenses implying non- 
fuWllment of a condition (d KOpo? io-wOrj, ^ao-Lkev^ av 
eyeVero, remains unchanged, even when made to depend 
on a historical tense; thus: elirov ol ''EWrjve^ on d K. 
iaMOrj, l3a(TLXev<; av iyivero, the Greeks Said that, if Cyrus, 
etc.); /5. all modes, and especially the future indicative, 
in a vivid description, i. e., Avhen the author describes 
the statements, thoughts, purposes, etc., of the act- 
ing persons in the original mode, and not as bis re- 
port of the same ('^mixed discourse"); y. the indica- 
tive the historical tenses imipljmg a fact, if in the 
direct discourse it occurred in a subordinate clause 
and therefore in the indirect discourse occurs in a sub- 
ordinate clause of a secondary degree. 

b. After the optative, infinitive, and participle of 
all tenses the mode of the dependent clause is changed 
(according to rule a), if said modes have the force of 
a historical teuse, i. e., if they themselves depend on 
such a tense. Thus (SovXofxaL, I wish, if made to depend 
on the present participle Xeywv or the future participle 
Xi^wv, will be the optative if the participle depends 
on a historical tense, otherwise the original mode 

remains, K. g '^k^ Xiymv otl fSovXoLTO, but yKet Xeyojv OTL 
(SovXerai, 



53 



§ 25. Modes in Dependent Object Clauses. 

(Indirect Discourse.) 
(G. §§ 1475-1504; H. §§ 928-987.) 

1. Conjunctions: on (stating the author's view); ojs 
(implying that the statement is more or less contrary 
to the author's view). 

2. Negatives: ov with a finite verb ; fjn] or ov with the 
infinitive, but only /xt^, — 

a. if the sentence has the force of a wish, command 

or prohibition (eXeyov tovto ov (or /x^) SUaiov elvac; but 
eXeyov avr(3 jmrj dStKeiv) ; 

b. if the clause is connected with an imperative 

[voiJitaaTe TOVTO fxr] hUaiov ehat) , OY With a Conditional 
clause (e't Tt9 <^ai?y TOVTO firj hiKaiov elvatj iI/€vSolto av). 

3. Modes: after a principal tense the same as in in- 
dependent sentences, but after a historical tense the 
indicative, the subjunctive^ and the subjunctive with 
av are changed to the optative without av (cf. § 24, 2, a 
and Exc). E. g. When the following independent 
sentences are made to depend on a historical tense, 
they are changed as follows : 

ayo) TTjv o-TpaTLOLV becomes : elwev otl Tr]V o-TpoLTiav ayoi (or ayu), 
" " " " ^^^^06 (usually ^fei). 

rjyayov^' " u u aydyoi (or rjyaye). 

" " " " " " " VX^^ ^^V i'^^'VX^)' 

Rem. 1. Dependent object clauses sometimes mat/, some- 
times mustt be expressed by the infinitive or the participle 
(see § 37, 3 b and c). 

lieni. 2. A dependent object clause may also be introduced 
by OTL without even changing the persons. In this case on 
has the force simply of a colon, and the clause that of direct 
discourse. 

4. Prolepsis 'm a peculiarly Greek construction, by 
which the subject of the subordinate clause is made 



54 



the object of the leading clause. This is especially the 
case in dependent object clauses and indirect ques 
tions (and also in final clauses after lirifxeXdaOai and 
verbs of fearing). E. g. SfSotKa /x^ ol woXefXiOL 'ipx'^vrai is 

made SiSotKa rov^ -n-oXeiXLOv^ ixrj ep^iovTac ; opare tovs iroXep^LOVSj 
on ovK iroXp^rjcrav /xa^ecr^at, for opare^ ort ol TroXe/xtot ktX ; 
i^rjyyuXe tyjv Kpicriv, ojg iyivero, for k^rjyyuX^v^ oJs r] Kpio-i^ 
iyevero. 

§ 26. Indirect Questions. 

(G. §§ 1475,1479, 1605,1606; H. §§ 930, 932, 1016.) 

1. Indirect questions are introduced — 

a. by interroo^ative pronouns and adverbs; e. g 

rt9, TTOcros, ttoTos, ttw?, oaTLS, oTroaos, ottolos, otto)? ; 

b. by C07?7WZ?Ct707?8 /et I eav), if, whether, et /x>7 (eai/ /xt;), 
if not ; TTorepov — rj; d (cav) or eire — rj; elre (eai/re) — etre (eavre), 

\Yhether — or. 

2. Negatives: regularly ov; but /x?; in indirect ques- 
tions originally deliberative, in those introduced by 
el and idv, and when the leading clause has the force 
of a wish, command or prohibition; eg o-K£i/^o/xat -n-oTepov 

dXrjOh io-TiV rj ov , but cr/<£i/^jLt iroTepov /xr;. 

3. Modes follow the same rules as in dependent ob- 
ject clauses: after a principal tense the same as in 
direct questions; after a historical tense generally 
changed, according to § 24. 

Direct question : 

a. Tt TTOLCls; 

b. tlttolQ); (deliberat.) 

C. Tt €7rot?yo-a?; 

d . Tt TTOtT/o-eta? av; 

e. Tt av iTTOLTjaas, el rjXOov ol TroXcfiioL ; 



55 



After a principal tense : 



b 

c. 

d. 
e. 



Tl TTOLYj . 



TL eTTOLTjcras. 



TL av iTTOLrjcaSj el 

rjXOov ol TToXijXLOL. 

Direct question: 
TTOTepov nifxeLi/ov icFTL /xeVetF 
Trapa JLvpco^ 05 <^tAos ecrrt' 
/xot, y aycLV otVaSe, wcTTrep 
rjfjiiv viricr^eTo; 



After a historical tense: 

a. r)p(x)TY}(Ta TL TTOLOLr}^ (OF 

TTOtets). 



b. 

c. 

d. 
e. 



Ti TTOLOLT] {OY TTOLJ] , 

or TL SioL TTOLeiv) . 
Tt" 7rot?;cr€ta9 ( OP 
iTTOLrj(ra<;) . 
TL TTOLrjacLas av. 
TL av iTTOLYjcra^^ el 

ol TToXifXLOL YjXOoV. 



f . rjpdjTrjae TroTCpov aixeLVOV elr) 
fxiv€LV irapa K., 05 cI>lXol<; 
avT<3 elrj, rj ayuv OLKaSe^ 
(Zairep avTois VTreax^TO. 



§ 27. Hypothetical Sentences. 

(G. §§ 1381-1424; H §§ 889-907.) 

1. Conjunction: tl (with av: idv, rjv, av). 

2. Negative: ixrj Ov is used, however, with verbs ot 
emotion (where el has the force of otl) and when one 
particular word or phrase is to be negatived (e. g. et 

ovK ea? for el KwXvet?). 

3. Modes: — 

I. The indicative of nny tense, in a supposition— 

a. implying reality; e g el SUaLos io-TLv 6 0e6^ (and he 

IS just), ot olSlkol KoXaaOrjaovTaL ; 

b. implying nothing rs to its fulfillment; e. g. 

KAea/o;)(09 el irapa tov^ opKOvs eXve ra? (JTrovSa? (the Speaker 

does not commit himself as to the reality of the sap- 
position), TTjv SiKTjV e^eL. 

The a/)odos78 takes the indicative, when the result 
is represented as a fact; the optative with av, when 



56 



the result is represented as probable; the imperative, 
when the result is represented as demanded. E. g. €t 

oi (X]/8p€9 OTrXa t)(pv(TiV^ ixa^ovvrai (the}" will fight); ixdypivTO 

av (they might fight); /^axeV^wv (let them fight). 

II. The indicative of historical tenses (without av), 
in a snpposition contrary to reality: 

a. imperfect with reference to present time ; 

b. aorist with reference to past time. 

The apodosis takes the indicative of the historical 
tenses with av: imperfect v^ith reference to the present, 
aorist with reference to the past. E.g. et dxov (if I had, 
but I have not), iS[Sovv av; el tdxov (if I had had, but I 
did not have), ISwm av. 

III. The subjunctive with av (the present, when the 
condition is represented as simultaneous Avith the re- 
sult; the aorist, when the condition is represented as 
preceding the result), in a supposition implying pos- 
sibility and an expectation that it will be realized or 
decided in the future, or repetition in the (present or) 
future time. 

The apodosis = in I. E.g. iav ol o-rpartcoTat vfxas opCyatv 
(if they shall see) dOvfJiOvs, Trarre? KaKol eaovTac; ^v crvyKv-rrTrj 

ra Kepara (if = as often as = Avhenever, the Avings are 

draAA^n together), dvdyKrj iarlv iKOXi/^eaOai roi'S owXcTas ; yv 
rjfjLd^ ViKr}(T(DfX€V (if AA'C shall haA^C conquered), o-re<^ai/ov 

IV. The optative {without av), in a supposition im- 
plying — 

a. merely possibility in the present or future time ; 

b. repetition in the past. 

The apodosis to a condition of class a takes the 
optative with dv (sometimes the indicatiA^e); e g. et 

</)tAo? (TOL yevo^fxrjv (if I sllOuld bcCOUie ), (to[ y ovk dv 



S7 

roT€ 8o^at/xt; to a Condition of class b, the indicative 
of the historical tenses with or withont av; e. g. el rt? 

a{»Ta> SoKOtrj /^XaKeveiv {it = whenever ),e7rat(r€v aV (he 

wouklbeat). 

V. From the rule concerning sequence of modes it 
follows that the indicative of a principal tense (in I) 
and the subjunctive with av (in III), when made to 
depend on a historical tense, are changed to the op- 

tative without av. E. g. KaAws ex^L^ el GnrovSat eio-LV, OY iav 

cnrovSal o^jctlv, when made to depend on a historical 
tense, will be: €<prj KaAw? ex^tv, el o-TrovSal eltv (onlv when 
the past thought is vividly conceived as if present: 

et elcTLV, or iav ojcrtv). 

§ 28. Concessive Clauses. 

(G. §§ 1510; H. §§ 969, 971, 979, 1053.) 

1. Conjunctions: a. d {iav) Kat, although; negatived : 

el ixrjSe^ if not cvcn ; 
b. Kal el (Kal iav, kolv), evcu if; nega- 
tived: ovS' (/tt^yS') el, not even if. 

2. Modes = those of the conditional clauses (see 
§27). 

Item. Concessive clauses are often replaced by the parti- 
ciple with Kat (negatived: ovSe or fjLrjSe) or katTrep (negatived: 
commonly Katirep ov, and KatTrep (xr/, only in connection Avit]] 
a sentence which requires /xt^). 

§ 29. Final Clauses. 

(G. §§ 1362-1380 ; H. §§ 880-888.) 

1. Conjunctions: w?, oVojg, Iva, 

2. Negative: fXYj. 

3 . Modes: The subjuncti ve after a principal tense ; 
the optative without av after a historical tense. E. g. 



58 



ra TrXoTa KaraKavcrw^ tva fxrj Kvpos SLa/3rj . rag yec^vpa? eXvcrav, 
Lva ol TToXifXLOL fJLY) Sia/Soiev. 

Rem. 1. Sometimes av is found with the subjunctive in 
final clauses. In connection with a leading clause implying 
non-reality the indicative of a historical tense is used in final 
clauses. E.g. ws av ixdOrj^;, avTOLKOvaov. et yap w</>cAov olot r 
eivai ra /Acytora KaKo. i^epyd^ecrOaL^ tva olot t -j crav av Kal dyaOa 
ra fxeyLO-Ta. 

Rem. 2. After verbs to strive for, to care for, to effect, the 
final clauses take the future indicative introduced by otto)? (the 
clause having the force of an indirect question). E. g. -rravra 
TTOLrjriov, ottws /xt) ctti rot? TroXe/xtot? yevrjo-ofxeOa. ottco? d/jLvvov/jLeOa^ 
ovSel^ irapaa Kevd^erai . 

4. After verbs or phrases implying fear, danger or 
caution iirj means that, lest; /x^ ov, lest not. E. g. 

(jyo/SeiTaL, fxr] tXOoycnv ol ttoX^/jllol : icf^o/SelTOj fxr] ovk eXOotev ol 

(jiiXoL. 

Rem. ov fjLT], by ellipsis of a verb or phrase of fear or dan- 
ger, sometimes occurs with the force of an emphatic negative 
= '^certainly not" ov klvSwos Io-tl, fxy, there is no danger 
that). Likewise /jlyj ov occurs with the force of a modest neg- 
ative = ^'possibly not" (= KtVSwds eo-rt^ /x^ ov, there is danger 
that not). 

§ 30. Relative Clauses. 

(G. §§ 1426-1448; H. §§ 908, 918.) 
I. Relative clauses with a definite antecedent. 

(Ordinary relative clauses.) 

1. These clauses are introduced by relative pro- 
nouns or modal or local relative adverbs. 

2. IVegatiife: mostly ov, but /x?; in clauses expressing* 
purpose or if the sentence implies a wish, command 
or prohibition. 

3. Modes are the same as in the independent sen- 
tence which is represented by the relative clause. 

K. g. avSpa'; ^X^j Tavra TroLrjaovcn^ OV iroioiev av (modcst 



59 



assertion), or oIIttoCovv av, et il3ov\ovTOj or ol liroirja-av av^ 
ct Tt9 avrov^ eKeXevcre. roLavra eTraOofxeVj oia tovs i)(^9pov<i ol Oeol 
TTOirjcreiav. i^kcl 6 avrjp, ov crv olSa<i ; 

Rem. Eelative clauses denoting jyi^r pose or remit take the 
future indicaiive (or the optative with av); e. g. rjKov -jyyc/xoms 
€)(ovTe^^ ol avTOvs ol^ovo-lv (purpose) evOcv e^ovo-c (result) ra 
kiTLTTjhua. After a historical tense the future indicative of 
these clauses generally remains. 

II. Relative clauses with an indefinite antecedent. 

(Hypothetical relative clauses.) 

1. These clauses are introduced by relative pro- 
nouns or modal or local relative adverbs, 

2. Negative: ixrj. 

3. Modes: the subjunctive with av (g:eneralization 
or iteration in present or future time) after a prin- 
cipal teu^e] the optative without av (generalization 
or iteration in past time) after a historical tense; 

Cf. § 27, 3, III and IV. E. g. ovrtva 'av Xd/3(^ S.7roKT€vQ> 

(whomsoever I shall seize I will kill); ovrtva \d/3oL diriKTeive 
(whomsoever he seized he killed). 

Note that oVrts dv with the subjunctive has the force 
of eav wdth the subjunctive ; oo-rt? with the optative has 
the force of et with the optative. 

§ 31. Temporal Clauses. 

(G. §§ 1425-1427; H. §§ 908, 909.) 
1. Conjunctions: 

a. oT€j oTTore, rivUa^ when ; €v (p, while; 

b. eTTCt, €7ret8>/, when, after; a5? ra;(to-ra, €7r€t Ta^Lara^ aS 

soon as ; 

c. €w?, €o-T€, fxixpi = : a. as long as ; p. until ; 

d. TrptV, before, until. 

Kem. "As long as," "while," with the present indicative, 
can be expressed only by ew? (not by eo-re or /x€;(pt). 



60 



2. /negatives: ov with the indicative; otherwise 

3. Modes: Temporal clauses take — 

a. The indicMive, when the clause denotes single 
(not repeated) facts; the aorist being generallj^ used 

for the pluperfect in English. E.g. ore iSeiTrvow, ol ayyeXoi 

rjXOov (while they were eating, etc.); €7ret iSeiTrvrjo-av, kt\. 
(when they had eaten, etc.). 

b. The subjunctive with av (the present to express 
something simultaneous, the aorist to express some- 
thing preceJi/ig' in relation to the action of the lead- 
ing clause), in reference to supposed single actions, or 
repeated facts in present or future time. E. g. 

€7retSav 8e 8ta7rpafa)/xat a 8eo/xat, rj^o). Set rov<s 7ro8a? tu)v tTTirmv 
TrepieXeiv, orav Slol t^9 ;)(tovos aywcrt. Trept/xeVere, Icrr' (or eo)?, 
or iiixpi) av eXOio. 

c. The optative without aV, according to § 24, 2, 
when the izidic^ ^7 re of a principal tense (in class a) 
or the subjunctive with av (in class b) is made to 
depend on a historical tense. E. g. Trept/xeVere, eo-r av 
€X0o) will be after a historical tense : ecfirj Selv TrepifxiveLv, 

ecTT eXOoL. 

d. The conjunction irpiv is generally followed bj^the 
infinitive when depending on an affirmative sentence, 
and by a finite mode when depending on a negative 
sentence. The choice of the finite mode is determined 
by rules a, b, c above. 

§ 32. Assimilation of Modes. 

(G. §8 1439-1441; H. § 919.) 

Final, relative and t6'72jpo7'a/ clauses often take the 
mode of the leading clause (without av, except Avith 
the subjunctive), when the latter does not express a 
fact, and the subordinate clause simply constitutes a 



()1 

complement to the thought expressed in the leading 
clause. E.g. el'^e y]Koi^ Iva tovto TroLotrj (tor ttolt), according to 

§ 29, 3). TyS^w? av /xetVat/xtj ewg av diriXOoLf; (for ew? av airiXOrj^;^ 
according to § 31, 3, b). oKvoi-qv av ek ra TrXola e/x/5atmv, 

§ 33. Causal Clauses. 

(G. §§ 1505, 1506 ; H. S§ 925, 926.) 

1. Conjunctions: oj?, to denote a subjective cause; 

on, Stort, iirel, €^TU^ (with VCrbs of 

emotion etj, to denote an objective 
cause. 

2. Negatives: ov; with et, sometimes ov, sometimes 

3. /l/lodes are the same as in the independent sen- 
tence which the clause represents, and are not changed 
after a historical tense, except in implied indirect dis- 
com'se, i. e., when the cause is assigned on the 
authority of some one else than the author. E. g. 

StKat'cus av jxoi ^^apt^oto, on (rot J^vpov iincrTpoLrevovTa wpwros 
rJyyetXa. After a historical tense: eXe^a, 6tl St/catcos av fJiOL 

)(apit,OLTOj oTi avT(3 K, TjyyeiXa, iOav/ma^ov^ on 

Kvpos ovT€ aXXov 7re/x7rot ovre avTos <^a[voLTO (the rcaSOU as- 
signed on the authority of those wondering). 

Rem. The cause may also be expressed by the infinitive 
with the article, either in the dative, or governed by the 
preposition 8ta in the accusative, or by the participle (cf. §86, 
3, b, and § 38, 3). 

§ 34. Consecutive Clauses- 

(G. §5i 1449— 1451 ; H. §S 927, 953, 1054, 1 f.) 

1. Conjunctions: (ocrre, sometimes ojs. 

2. Negatives: ov with a finite niode; p-y with an in- 

finitive. 



62 



3. Modes: 

a. A finite mode, when the result is stated as an 
actual fact. In this case wo-re generally has the force 

of ^'therefore." E. g. els Trjv vcrrepaiav ov)( rjKev 6 TL(j(Tacf>epvr]S, 
ojore ol 'EXXTyi/es i(f)p6vTi^ov. 

b. The infinitive (the construction of subject and 
appositions according to § 36, 1 and 2), when the re- 
sult is stated as the logical consequence of the action 
of the leading verb, that which is aimed at by said 
action. In this case oVrc (wg) has the force of '^so as," 
'^m such a Avay as." E.g. rptripus wo-re eAetv (so that 

I can take) to iKeiVwv irXoiov. 
Rem. Thus wo-re takes the infinitlTe always — 
a. after a comparative with rj; 
^. when it denotes purpose [— oVcos); 
y. wlien it denotes a co??(??Y/ow (= w, e<^' wre, 

on the condition that); 
8. when it is used after verbs "to effect," "to bring- 
about, " where the infinitive alone could stand 
(cf. §37, 2, b). 

§ 35. Comparative Clauses. 

(H. § 1054.) 

1. Ordinary comparative clauses (in which a fact 
is compared with a fact) are introduced by the con- 
junctions oU, ojo-TTcp, KaOd-n-ep, as, frequently with the cor- 
relative oiJtws in the leading clause; and modes and 
negatives are the same as in independent sentences 

(§ 23). E.g. ojcTTrep 6 vofios KeXevet^ ovro) kol Set Trotetv. tevro, 
(Zairep av 8pa/xot rts €7rt vlkyj^ kol Oolttov y) (09 rt? av (dcto i^eKOfXL- 
crav TOL? d/xa^ag. 

2. Hypothetical comparative clauses (in which a 
/act 78 coz7?p5re67with something pre8Z7/77e J) are intro- 
duced by olcTTrep av d and negatived by ft?;. They take— 



68 



a. the optative with reference to the present time ; 

e. g. ovT(x) (po/SovvTaCj MCTrep av el (= wcnrep (polSoivTO av, el) iv 
/xecrots rots TroXe/xtot? elev ; 

b. the indicative of the imperfect or the aorist with 
reference to past time; e. g. ovtm ecj^ofSovvTOj Mcnrep av 

el [= (jjcnrep ecl>ol3ovvTO ar, et) iv piicroLS rot? TroXe/xtot? rjaav. 

Kem. Hypothetical comparative clauses are often re- 
placed by the participle and ojcnrep^ ws; e. g. KaraKet/xe^a ojcnrep 
i$6v y](TV)(^iav ayetv. 

§ 36. The Infinitive. 

(G. §§ 1516-1556; H. §§ 938-964.) 

1. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative, 
if it is not identical with that of the leading verb. If 
the subjects are identical, that of the infinitive is 
omittedi, the predicates and appositions agreeing with 
the subject of the leading verb. E. g. ol/xat viKrjcreiv (that 
I will conquer), ol/xat o-o<^o9 elvai (that I am wise). 

Rem. The subject of the infinitive even w^hen it is identical 
w^ith that of the leading verb, may he expressed for the sake of 
emphasis ov contrast, and ma y then stand either in the nominative 
or the accusative (mostly the nominative of avro^, and the ac- 
cusative of the personal and reflexive pronouns); e. g. Kpotoro? 
ivofXL^ev eavTov oX/^twraroi/ (or avro^ oX^twraros) elvat. ^oyKparr]^ 
ecfyrj roi;? fmev ttoXXoi;? ^rjv lvol icrOiWcnv^ avTo^ (or avrov^ or avTovj 
Be iaOUiv, Lva ^fj . 

2. The construction of the predicate modifiers with 
the infinitive is determined by the following rules : 

a. If thej refer to an indefinite subject (sometimes 
expressed by rtm, nva^, sometimes understood), they 
stand in the accusative, E. g. Bel ^rjv TretOofxevov rot? vojtxot?. 

b. If they refer to a word in the leading clause, 
they ^gree with the same. Fj. g.iSiovTo avrov elmt irpoOvpiov. 

a^LOVfJLev iXevOepoL elvai (cf. paragraph 1). 



64 

Rem. If the predicate modifiers refer to a genitive oV da- 
five in the learling clause, they may also stand in the accusa- 
tive, provided that the infinitive is a complete predicate (and 
not onl3" a copnlative verb simply to connect a predicate 
modifier with the snbject of the leading verb ^ ; e.g. Hei/ta 
yjKeiv iraprjy yciXe Xa^ovra (or Xa/Sovri) tol'? avSpas. With 
TTpoarjKei^ irpiirei^ e^ecrrt three constructions are allowed, even 
when the infinitive is simply copnlative; e. g. -n-poaiqKu rjplv 
iXevOepoL^; (or iXevOipov^) elmt, or -jy/xa? iXevOepovq elvai. 

3. The infinitive takes the ariic/e — 

a. as subject or object, 072/7 when it stands izj place 
of an abstract noun which should have had the article; 

e. g'. -Yjhv iari TO Orjpav y) ^VP^)l 

b. in the oblique cases, when it is used like the 

Latin gerund j Q'.g.oiVTr) aXXr] Trpoc^acrts rjv avrw rov aOpOit,eLV 
TO (TTpoLTevfJia. 8ta to $evo<s dvai ovk av olu aSLKrjOrj vat. 

Rem. The infinitive denoting purpose (final infinitive) is 
always in the active voice ; e. g. ty]v ^^pai/ eTreVpei/^e toT? 'FiXXyjo-l 
8tap7rao-at (in Enghsh, to be plundered). 

§ 37. Accusative (Nominative) with the Infinitive. 

(For references see § 36.) 

1. Accusative with the infmtive stands with im- 
personal verbs and phrases, as Set, xpv^ Tr^eVet, e^^eo-Tt, 

otov T iaTL, SvvaTOV ecTTt, criJ/x^atVet, ytyi/eTat. E.g\8et /xe TarTa 
TTOtetv. crvjJilSaLvei pnqhiva Trapetmt 

Rem. Note that personal construction is required with 
such verbs as Sokw, <^atVo/xat, lotKa (English: it seems that), 
Kivhvvevix) (it is likely), TTo A Ao{) (oAtyov) 8ea> (I am far, I am not 
far, from), S/xato? et/xt (it is just). Sokcl, however, in the sense 
of seem good, decide, is regularly impersonal. 

2. Accusative (or nominative) with the infimtive 
stands — 

a. with verbs of perception, saying and command; 

e. g. vo/xt^o/xej/ vfia^ o-ocjyov^ elvai ; ■ iKrjpv^e Xaf36vTa^ to. owXa tov^ 
aTpaTLU)Tas i^tevaL; (prjal tTTTrev? ayaOo^ dvai; 



65 

b. with verbs to effect^ to bring about; e. g. SteTrpa^aro 

6 KXeap;>(09 TOv<i"YiXXrjva<; Kijpo) (jvcrrpaTevecrOaL. 

3. Instead of the inSnitive after verbs of perception 
and saying on with a finite mode may be used, except 
in the following cases : 

a. only (o<s, when that which is stated is contrary 
to the author's view, or only subjectively valid; e. g. 

Ticrcracfyipvrjs Sta^aXXet rbv ILvpov tt/oo? tov aSeXcfybv oj? (claim- 
ing, falsely, that) i7n/3ovXevoL avT(3; 

b. only the infinitive after (^?;/xt and verbs to believe. 

(otOfxaL, FO/xt^o)), suppose (vTrOTTTevo), TTpoaSoKQ)); and (in 

indirect discourse, the future) after verbs to promise, 
hope, threaten, refuse, deny, swear; e. g. wovro tovs 

TToXe/xtovs iv rats TrXrjatov Kw/xat? etmt ; virid^ero ravra TroLrjacLV 

(that he w^ould do), but ravra TTOLdv (to do); 

c. the participle after verbs to find, apprehend; 
the participle or on after verbs to see, understand, 
notice, learn, know, hear, remember, demonstrate; 

e. g. olSa TO!)? avOp(i)7rov^ Ovqrov'i ovras ; dSov avrovs TreXd^ovras. 

§ 38. The Participle. 

(G. §§ 1557—1593 ; H. §§ 965-987.) 

1 . The participle takes the article, not only when it 
is used attrihuti vely, but also when it has the force of— 

a. a hypothetical relative clause in a generalizing 

sense; e. g. 6 dStKWT/ (= oVrtg av aStK^^) aftd? Ian ^ry/xta?; 

b. a consecutive or )5z?a7 clause with an indefinite 
subject; e. g. eVe/xi/^e Toi;? ipovvra^; (he Sent somc to say); 
but €7re/xi/^e Av/ctov dyyeXo^i/ra (no article, there being a 
definite subject). 

2. The participle stands for an English finite verb 
with ^'verbs of modified existence^' (denoting the 
ma.nner of existence of the subject at the time of the 



66 



action). Such verbs are rvyxdvM (to be hj chance, 
happen), XavddvM (to be hidden; with a participle: se- 
cretly), cfyOdvo) (to anticipate), Stayw, StareXew, 

(to continue), ^atVo/xat, (j^avrjpo^ OY 8^Adg et/At (to be evi- 
dent ; with a participle: clearly, evidently), olxofxaL (to 
begone; with a participle: away). With these v^erbs 
the Greek participle generally represents a ^^n^te verb 
in English, and the Greek finite verb is generalh^ ren- 
dered by an ^(7 rerfoia/ phrase in Euglish. E. g. irvyxoivov 
Xeywv, I happened to say; rovro 8' av ovrv) rp€<p6iJL€vov iXdvOavev 
avTw TO (TTpdrevfJia (waS SCCrctly Supported); TroAe/xo)]/ 

8t€yeWo(he was continually waging war); iwiopKi^v icj^dvY} 
(he evidently committed perjury); olxerat dTroTrAeW (he 
has sailed away). 

3. The participle stands for a causal clause : 

a. with verbs of emotion, provided the subjects are 

identical ' Tj^o piai vcfi' vfxojv TLfiMjJLevos (butort 9 <PlXos Tt/xarat); 

b. with verbs to do well or evil, right or wrong: 

ev iiTOLrjo-as rovro dvajjivrjo-as /xe. 

4. The participle stands with verbs to be superior 
or inferior, to endure or be weary, to begin or cease, 

E. g. VLKU) (^Kparo), rjrrCifJLai) TroXe/xcov. ovk dve^o/xat rovs <PlXov<; 
jjiOL iyKaXovvras opojv (I do not CudurC tO SCej. TravojULai 

TToXe/xwi/, or rov TroXefxov (I ccasc to wagc war). 

5. When sl participle stands for a clause, it agrees 
with the word in the leading clause to which it refers 
(conjunctive participle); but ii the subject of the sub- 
ordinate clause is not found in the leading clause, the 
participle, it representing a clause with an impersonal 
subject, i8 in the accusative (accusative absolute); if 
representing a clause with a personal subject, it is in 
the ^e737^z>e (genitive absolute). To change a con- 
junctional clsiuse to genitive absolute, drop the con- 



67 

janction, change the subject to the genitive, and 
chsinge the finite verb to the participle to agree with 

the subject. E. g. ravra elTTMV Kvpo<; aTTrjec (conjunctive 
participle); ravra etTTOi/TO? }L\€dp)(ov ( = iirel ravra eiTrcv K.) 

Kvpos airrjeL f genitive absolute); aSrjXov ov (since it is un- 
certain) et iXevo-eraL, fxevovfiev (accusative absolute); but 
with a definite subject : rovrov dSi^Xov oVros fxevovfji^v. 

§39. Negatives. 
(G. §§ 1607-1619; H. §§ 1018-1035.) 

1. Negatives with finite modes are : 

a. OL^,— in declarative sentences, both independent 
and dependent, direct and indirect questions 
(except deliberative), in causal consecutive (ex- 
cept with the infiniti ve) , ordinary relati ve (except 
when they represent an independent sentence 
which requires /XT/), and ordinary comparative 
clauses ; 

b. /XT/,— in wishes, exhort actions, deliberative ques- 
tions, in final, hypothetical, concessive and hy- 
pothetical relative clauses. 

c. Temporal clauses take ov with the indicative, 
otherwise fjirj. 

2. With the infinitive the negative is /x?/. 

Rem. Ill coiitiniied indirect discourse ov is used with the 
infinitive. 

3. With participles, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, 
the negative is regularly ov; but /x?/, — 

a. if they are hypothetical, generalizing, or con- 
cessive (mtTTcp ov, however); 

b. if /XT/ is required by the connection (i. e. if the 
participle, noun, etc., stand in connection with an 
exhortation, wish, a h^qiothetical sentence, Set, xPVyOv 
an infinitive which re(|uires /x?/). 



68 



4. A negative is emphasized hj a following com- 
pound negative (o^x ^P^ ovSeva, I do not see any one at 
all), but is often neutralized by a following simpleueg- 
ative, each negative in this latter case having its sep- 
arate force {ovSds ovK etSe n, no One did not see any- 
thing = everybody saw something). 

5. When depending on a verb of saying, perceiving 
and wishing with a negative sense ( = to doubt, not 
believe, deny, refuse, hinder, forbid), the infinitive 
usually takes M (not translated in English). When 
said verbs of saying, etc., with a negative sense are 
themselves negatived, the infinitive depending on 
them generally takes m ov. E. g dTrto-roj, afjLcfyKr/SrjTO) (I 

doubt, I do not believe), or apvovfxat, efapi/d? et/xt, avTiXeyo) 
(deny) avrov /x^ rj^eiv; — ovk dTrto-Tw ktX. /jlt] ovk avrov rf^tiv (in 

both sentences = that he will come). kwAl-o), Kare^w, 

OLTreyoi ae (^ajray opevo)^ i /jlttoSmv et/xt cot Or ere) firj rovro TroLeiv; — 
ov KoXvix) ktX. fJLTj ov ce TOVTO TTOtdi^ (lu both SCUtcn CCS = fr OUl 

doing this). 

Kem.l. If the above named verbs are foUowed b3^ 6tl (ojs), 
OV may be used in the dependent clause whether the leading 
verb is negatived or not; e. g. dvrtXeyco ort ovk aXyjOeq Io-tl. 

Rem. 2. After phrases of negative meaning: ov 8vm/xat, ov^ 
olov re, Tts MX^^Vy {— it is impossible) , Seivov io-n^ alaxpov 
io-TL (it is not proper), the infinitive takes /jlt] ov, when the 
impossibility (or impropriety) of neglecting tlie action is to 
be expressed; ov 8wa/xat /jltj ov ravra vrotetv ("non possum non 
facere," I must necessarily do it); ttolo-lv aiaxvyr] M 
o-vo-TTovSa^etv (to neglect to join in zealous exertion). 




Errata. 

Page 86, 1st line, read ot>w^a) for olfxo^o). 
37, 17th Their There. 

50, 19th " " " iv^' 

" 55, 13th " <l^tXo<; " c^aot?. 



TILLKANNAGIFVES, 

att var alskade make och fader 

Prof., Fil. dr Anders Olof Bersell 

stilla och fridf ullt afsomnade i tfon pa Fralsaren 

den i6 dennes i en alder af 50 ar och 7 man. 

Begrafningen ager rum lordagen den 19 dennes* 
Sorgegttdstjanst halles a Augustana College kapell 
kL t e* m* 

Aug* CoIL och TeoL Seminarium^ Rock Island^ IIU 
den i6 december 1903. 

Uma B* BersetU fodd Lagertundj. 
och barnen. 



t 



